IN  MEMORIAM 
BERNARD  MOSES 


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NEW  ANALYTIC  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


NEW    ANALYTIC 


\  .     ^'x-f 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE 


HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 


FOE  COLLEGES,  ACADEMIES  AND  FAMILIES. 


WITH  QUESTIONS. 


BY   CALVIN   CUTTER,   M.D. 


WITH    NUMEROUS    ENGRAVING}*. 


PHILADELPHIA 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT    &    CO. 

1873. 


BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

G 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1870,  bj 

CALVIN  CUTTER,  M.D., 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

BERNARD  IW0SE8 


IIPPIHOOTT'8    PRVP6 

PHII.ADKI.PHI4 


TO   MY   AFFECTIONATE   WIFE, 
EUNICE  P.  CUTTER, 

WHO    UNTIRINGLY    AIDED    ME    IN    THE    PREPARATION    OF    MY    FORMER 
WORK    IN    1849,  AND    IN    ITS    REVISION    IN    1852, 

.      AND   TO  OUR   TWO   SONS, 

JOHN  CLARENCE  CUTTER  AND  WALTER  POWERS  CUTTER, 

TRUSTING   THAT   THEY    WILL   SEE    THAT   ALL   TIMELY    REVISION    ANJi 
EMENDATION   ARE    MADE    IN    FUTURE,  TO   MEET   THE    DE- 
MANDS OF  INCREASING  INTELLIGENCE, 

THIS   TREATISE   IS   DEDICATED   BY 

HUSBAND,  FATHER  AND  AUTHOR. 


885996 


PREFACE. 


THE  solicitation  of  my  publishers,  and  the  request  of  many 
teachers,  have  induced  me  to  review  and  remodel  my  school- 
book  on  Outline  Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene,  adapt- 
ing it  to  the  advanced  position  of  teachers,  schools  and  the 
community.  My  former  work  was  published  in  1849,  and 
thoroughly  revised  in  1852.  Several  hundred  thousand 
copies  of  the  revised  edition  have  been  published.  It  haa 
been  translated  and  published  in  five  different  languages, 
by  the  missionaries  in  Asia  and  Europe. 

In  general  arrangement,  the  present  Treatise  is  modeled 
after  the  former.  The  aim  has  been  to  improve  the  analysis ; 
to  bring  the  Chemistry  and  Histology  to  the  present  ad- 
vanced state  of  these  sciences;  to  make  the  Anatomy  and 
Physiology  concise  and  definite,  the  Hygiene  plain  and 
practical ;  to  introduce  some  Comparative  Anatomy ;  and  to 
furnish  illustrating  cuts,  both  apposite  and  artistic. 

I  am  under  great  obligation  to  Joseph  Leidy,  M.  D.,  of 
Philadelphia,  who  kindly  permitted  the  use  of  his  original 
illustrating  cuts  from  his  very  valuable  work  upon  Human 
Anatomy;  also  to  the  works  of  Marshall  and  Owen,  and 
other  scientific  men,  whose  writings  have  been  quoted  and 
opinions  adopted. 

As  my  physical  frame  is  much  enfeebled  from  wounds  re- 
ceived while  surgeon  in  the  volunteer  army,  I  am  under 
1*  5 


6  PREFACE. 

special  obligations  to  Miss  Ada  L.  Howard,  Principal  of 
Ivy  Hall,  Bridgeton,  N.  J.,  not  only  for  the  ready  pen,  but 
for  much  detailed  investigation,  for  simplifying  the  abstruse 
and  erudite  statements  of  our  strictly  scientific  works,  and 
for  bringing  into  close  contact,  relationship  and  harmony — 
in  a  word,  unifying  —  what,  without  skillful  combination, 
would  be  isolated  and  fragmentary. 

To  the  educational  men  and  women,  to  all  desiring  know- 
ledge of  themselves,  physically,  intellectually  and  morally, 
this  small  volume  is  respectfully  submitted. 

CALVIN  CUTTER. 

WAEBBN,  MASS.,  July,  1870. 


TO  TEACHERS. 


ALLOW  me  to  suggest  that  the  method  of  study  and  in- 
struction of  this  work  should  be  Analytical,  with  Synthetical 
Reviews ;  that  the  Headings  of  the  several  chapters  may  be 
used  as  TOPICS  ;  that  each  subject  should  be  thoroughly  con 
sidered,  viewed  in  its  relations  to  other  subjects,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, investigated  beyond  the  limits  of  this  elementary  work ; 
that  the  Chemistry  and  Histology  should  receive  due  atten- 
tion, as  the  underlying  basis  of  the  Anatomy,  Physiology 
and  Hygiene ;  that,  as  far  as  possible,  the  subject  should  be 
made  an  object  study — the  Chemistry,  by  simple  experiments, 
the  Anatomy,  by  examinations  of  parts  of  domestic  animals ; 
also,  that  Outline  Anatomical  Diagrams  or  Charts  are  as 
desirable  as  a  map  in  History  or  Geography ;  that,  in  case 
of  limited  time  or  other  necessity,  the  Comparative  Anatomy, 
Histology  and  Chemistry,  one  or  all,  may  be  omitted  (though 
with  great  loss  to  the  pupil),  and  the  remaining  sections  will 
be  wall  adapted  to  each  other. 


ANALYSIS  OF  CONTENTS 


DIVISION   I. 

8ECT  CHAPTER  I.— GENERAL   REMARKS.  PAQE9 

1.  The  Three  Kingdoms  of  Nature  Compared 11-13 

2.  Definitions .. 13, 14 

CHAPTER  II.— GENERAL   HISTOLOGY. 

3.  Colls ~ 14-17 

4.  Tissues 17-25 

5.  Membranes  25-30 

CHAPTER,   III.— GENERAL   CHEMISTRY. 

6.  Solids  and  Fluids 30-34 


DIVISION  II. 
MO  TORY  APPARATUS. 
CHAPTER  IV.— THE  BONES. 

7.  Anatomy  of  the  Bones 36-47 

8.  Histology      "         " 47-54 

9.  Chemistry     "         " 54,55 

10.  Physiology   "         "       55-60 

11.  Hygiene        "         " 60-66 

12.  Comparative  Osteology 67-72 

CHAPTER   V.— THE   MUSCLES. 

13.  Anatomy  of  the  Muscles 73-79 

14.  Histology     "           "       79-81 

15.  Chemistry    "           "       81,82 

1C.  Physiology  "           "        83-89 

17.  Hygiene        "            "        89-98 

18.  Comparative  Myology 98-102 


DIVISION  III. 

NUTRITIVE  APPARATUS. 

CHAPTER  VI.— THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 

19.  Anatomy  of  the  Digestive  Organs 103-109 

20.  Histology      "  "  "       110-116 

21.  Chemistry    "  "  "       116-120 

22.  Physiology  "  "  "       120-122 

23.  Hygiene       "  "  "       122-131 

24.  Comparative  Splanchnology 131-13" 

A  *  9 


10  ANALYSIS   OF   CONTENTS. 


SP,:CT>  CHAPTER  VII.— ABSORPTION.  PAUE8 

25.  Anatomy  of  the  Absorbents 138-141 

26.  Histology     «•  "  141-143 

27.  Chemistry     <;  "  143,144 

28.  Physiology  "  "  144-146 

29.  Hygiene        "  "  146,147 

CHAPTER  VIII.— THE  CIRCULATION. 

30.  The  Blood 148, 149 

31.  Anatomy  of  the  Circulatory  Organs 150-156 

32.  Histology     "  "  " 156-160 

33.  Chemistry    "  "  "       160-162 

34.  Physiology  «  "  "       162-168 

35.  Hygiene       "  "  "       168-17'2 

36.  Comparative  Angiology , 172-175 

CHAPTER  IX.— ASSIMILATION. 

37.  Assimilation,  General  and  Special 176-181 

CHAPTER  X.— THE   RESPIRATORY  AND   VOCAL  ORGANS. 

38.  Anatomy  of  the  Respiratory  and  Vocal  Organs 182-185 

39.  Histology      "  "  "  "      186-188 

40.  Chemistry     "  "  "  "      188-190 

41.  Physiology  "  "  "  " 190-196 

42.  Hygiene       "  "  •«  "      197-205 

43.  Comparative  Pueumouology 205-209 


DIVISION  IV. 

SENSORIAL   APPARATUS. 

CHAPTER  XI.— NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

44.  Anatomy  of  the  Nervous  System.... 210-225 

45.  Histology     "  "  "       225-228 

46.  Physiology   "  "  "       229-240 

47.  Hygiene        "  "  "        240-2o2 

48.  Comparative  Neurology 252-259 

CHAPTER  XII.— THE  ORGANS  OP   SPECIAL  SENSE. 

49.  Anatomy  of  the  Organs  of  Special  Sense 260-281 

60.  Physiology   "  "  "  " 281-288 

61.  Hygiene        "  "  "          "     289-298 

APPENDIX. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
CARE  or  THE  SICK 299-GOH 

POISONS  AND  THEIR  ANTIDOTES 303-306 

GLOSSARY 307-317 

INDEX 319-322 

For  Treatment  of  Wounds,  see  \  363     For.  Recovery  of  Drowned  Persons,  Bee  fl  430. 
For  Treatment  of  Burns,  see  f  610.    For  Treatment  of  Frost-Bite,  see  fl  612. 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE, 


DIVISION   I. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL   REMARKS. 

§  1.  THE  THREE  KINGDOMS  OF  NATURE  COMPARED. — Essential  dis- 
tinctions between  the  Mineral,  Vegetable  and  Animal  Kingdoms. — 
Nature  of  the  Life-force.— Vitalized  and  Non-  Vitalized  Bodies  com- 
pared.— Plants  and  Animals  compared. 

1.  "  LAPIDES    CRESCUNT  ;    VEGETABILIA  CRESCUNT    ET 
VIVUNT;   ANIMALIA   CRESCUNT,  VIVUNT   ET   SENTIUNT,"" 
was  the  Linnsean  distinction  between  the  three  great  king- 
doms of  Nature.     Though  imperfect,  it  is  still  suggestive  of 
the  boundaries  of  each  division.     The  Mineral  kingdom  in- 
cludes all  things  naturally  destitute  of  life;   the   Vegetable 
kingdom,  all  organizations  having  a  certain  type  of  life,  but 
no  power  to  feel  or  to  will ;  the  Animal  kingdom,  those  pos- 
sessing a  higher  type  of  life  and  the  powers  of  sensation  and 
voluntary  motion. 

2.  INORGANIC,  or  MINERAL  bodies  are  made  up  of  atoms 
combined  and  arranged  according  to  certain  mechanical  and 
chemical    laws.      ORGANIC,    or  VEGETABLE   and  ANIMAL 
bodies  are  combinations  of  like  atoms,  according  to  the  same 
laws  controlled  by  Vitality  or  the  Life-force.    Plants  have  a 

*  "  Stones  grow  ;  Plants  grow  and  live  ;  Animals  grow,  live  and  feel." 

11 


12  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

• 

vegetable  vitality — animal?-  an  ar^m<il  vitality.  Of  the  real 
character  of  this  life-force-  vc  know  nothing,  Nature  works 
in  her  inner  laboratory  with  "^To  adc^t^ance"  upon  her 
door.  We  are  at  liberty  to  examine  her  products,  but  the 
mighty  principle  upon  which  they  are  wrought  she  holds  fast 
as  a  secret  unrevealable  to  us  with  our  present  limitations. 

3.  Among  the  Distinctions  between  ORGANIZED,  or  VITAL- 
IZED, and  UNORGANIZED,  or  NON-VITALIZED  bodies,  are  the 
following :  An  Organized  body  consists  of  an  assemblage  of 
parts    called  organs,  having  a  mutual  relation  to,  and  de- 
pendence upon,  each  other ;  these  taken  together  constitute 
an  individual,  a  being;  therefore  the  parts  when  separated 
are  incomplete,  as  is  seen  in  a  divided  plant.     Not  so  with 
the  Unorganized  body :  each  fragment  of  a  rock  possesses  all 
the  essential  characteristics  of  the  original  mass.      Organized 
bodies,  being  subject  to  constant  waste  from  vitalized  activi- 
ties, demand  nourishment;    Unorganized  bodies,  being   per- 
manent in  their  nature,  require  no  food.     Organized  bodies 
grow  by  means  of  particles  of  matter  conveyed  to  their  in- 
terior and  there  assimilated ;   Unorganized  bodies  increase  in 
size  by  simple  layers  upon  the  exterior :  the  former  have  a 
limit  in  size;  the  latter  have  no  natural  limit.     Organized 
bodies  have  their  period  of  duration :  decay  and  death  await 
every  living  animal  and  vegetable ;  but,  from  the  nature  of 
the  Inorganic  world,  we  speak  of  the  mountains  as  everlasting. 
Organized  bodies  have  their  particles  arranged  in  lines  gene- 
rally more  or  less  curved,  with  varying  angles,  as  in  animals 
and   plants;    Unorganized  bodies  have  their  lines  straight, 
with  angles  mathematically  exact,  as  in  the  crystal  of  com- 
mon  salt.       Organized   bodies    reproduce    themselves,   each 
species  after  its  own  kind  ;   Unorganized  bodies  have  no  such 
power  of  reproduction. 

4.  The  Distinctions  between  ANIMALS  and  PLANTS  are  im- 
portant.    Animals   take  in  oxygen   and   give  out  carbonic 
acid  gas;    Plants  take  in  carbonic  acid  gas  and  give  out 
oxygen.     Animals  subsist  upon  the  products  of  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdoms ;  Plants,  upon  those  of  the  mineral 


GENERAL,   REMARKS.  13 

kingdom.    Animals,  possess  the  power  of  sensation  and  volun- 
tary motion ;  Plants,  neither. 

5.  These  distinctions  are  obvious  and  definite  in  the  higher 
grades ;  but  in  the  descending  scale  we  recognize  a  gradual 
approach  of  plants  and  animals  to  each  other,  and  likewise 
to  the  mineral  kingdom ;  so  that,  in  the  lower  forms  of  life, 
all  perceptible  traces  of  organization  disappear,  and,  like 
converging  radii,  the  three  kingdoms  of  Nature  blend  in  one 
common  centre. 

\  2.  DEFINITION  OF  TERMS. 

6.  An   organized   body  consists   of  parts  called   Or'gans. 
A   collection  of  organs   so   arranged   that   their   combined 
actions  shall  produce  a  given  result  is  called  an  Apparatus. 
The  definite,  peculiar  use  of  an  organ  or  apparatus  is  called 
its  Function :  Example. — The  digestive  apparatus  consists  of 
the  organs — teeth,  stomach,  liver,  etc. — whose  combined  func- 
tions result  in  the  digestion  of  food. 

The  description  of  the  form  and  position  of  these  organs 
is  called  ANAT'OMY;*  the  description  of  their  functions, 
PHYSIOL'OGY  ;  f  the  examination  of  the  conditions  most 
favorable  to  their  health,  HY'GIENE.  J 

7.  The  organs  are  composed  of  a  variety  of  structures, 
called  Tissues,  which  are  themselves  composed  of  Cells.     The 
description  of  the  form,  color,  constituents   and   origin  of 
these  tissues  and  cells,  or  their  minute  anatomy,  is  called 
HISTOL'OGY;§  the  science  which  treats  of  their  ultimate  ele- 
ments is  called  CHEM'ISTRY.  || 

*  Gr.,  ana,  through,  and  tome,  a  cutting, 
f  Gr.,  phusis,  nature,  and  logos,  a  discourse. 
J  Gr.,  hugieinon,  health, 
g  Gr.,  histos,  a  web,  and  logos,  a  discourse, 
||  Ar.,  kimia,  hidden  art. 


CHAPTER   II. 

GENERAL   HISTOLOGY. 

8  3.  CELLS. —  Unity  of  Plan  exhibited  in  Plants  and  Animals. — Simplt 
Cells. — Adaptation  to  Different  Offices. — Modes  of  Multiplication. 

S.  WHEREVER  we  find  the  work  of  the  INFINITE,  there 
we  find  Unity  of  Plan.  Whatever  the  extent  of  the  applica- 
tions of  this  plan,  whatever  its  modifications,  there  is  still 
more  or  less  apparent  the  distinct  central  idea.  Amid  the 
seemingly  great  diversity  of  substances  in  plants  and  ani- 
mals, there  appears  a  beautiful  and  remarkable  exhibit  of 
this  Unity. 

9.  PROTOPLASM*  is  the  formal  basis  of  all  living  bodies. 
Animal  Protoplasm,  or  Blastema,^  as  it  is  often  called,  is  an 
albuminous  fluid,  generally  regarded  as  identical  with  the 
liquor  sanguinis,  or  fluid  portion  of  the  blood,  in  which  the 
red  corpuscles  are  suspended.     Floating  in  this  protoplasm 
are  numerous  minute  spheroidal  cells,  and  an  infinitude  of 
smaller  bodies  having  the  appearance  of  dots  called  granules. 
From  this   organizable  fluid  every  part  of  living  beings  is 
formed ;  here  is  Unity  of  Substance. 

10.  The  simple  Nucleated  cell  is  the  earliest  organic  form 
of  every  living  thing,  and  increase  of  size  is  but  an  increase 
of  the  number  of  cells.     There  are  sundry  very  low  animals, 
each  of  which  is  structurally  a  nucleated  cell,  a  colorless 
blood-corpuscle  leading  an  independent  life;   a  step  higher 
come  those  which  are  little  more  than  aggregations  of  similar 
cells ;  and  at  length,  as  the  vital  functions  become  more  and 
more  differentiated,  appear  those  with  cells  variously  modi- 
fied, forming  increasingly  well-defined  and  complicated  organs, 
till  they  seem  to  reach  perfection  in  man. 

*  Gr.,  protos,  first,  and  plasma,  formed.  f  Gr.,  blastos,  a  germ. 

14 


GENERAL   HISTOLOGY.  15 

11.  In  the  plant-world  we  find  the  same  plan  pursued; 
under  the  microscope,  the  vegetable  and  the  animal  cell 
appear  essentially  the  same,  but  they  are  by  no  means  iden- 
tical. In  examining  the  nucleoli  of  animal  cells,  little  cir- 
cular bodies  dart  across  the  field  of  view.  These  seem  to 
possess  the  power  of  voluntary  movement ;  and,  had  we  the 
requisite  refinement  of  sight,  we  should  doubtless  be  able  to 
classify  even  these  minute  bodies  as  accurately  as  we  now  do 
the  fully-developed  animal.  In  the  vegetable  cell  these  are 
never  seen. 

FIG.  l. 


i  2 

FIG.  1  (Lddy\  AN  IDEAL  CELL.— 1,  Cell  with  its  wall,  protoplasm,  nucleus  and  its 
nucleolua.  2,  The  same  divided  into  two.  3,  The  same  divided  into  four  cells.  4,  The 
game  divided  into  many  cells.  The  dark  portion,  the  protoplasm ;  the  white  spot,  the 
nucleus ;  the  inner  small  circle,  the  nucleolus.  Magnified. 

12.  It   appears,  then,   that  the   lowest   and   the   highest 
organism — the    fungus    and    man — have,    in    their    earliest 
development,   a   unity  of  form  of   which   the  type   is   the 
simple  cell. 

13.  A  SIMPLE  CELL  consists  of  a  delicate  sac  containing 
protoplasm,  in  which  is  another  very  minute  sac,  called  the 
nu'cleus,  which  contains  yet  another  sac — the  nucleolus,  or 
little  nucleus.     Very  minute  particles,  or  granules,  are  also 
seen.     A  good  example  of  a  simple  animal  cell,  on  a  large 
scale,  is  an  egg :  the  lining  of  the  shell  is  the  cell-wall  or  sac ; 
the  white  is  the  contained  protoplasm;  the  yolk  is  the  nu- 
cleus; and  its  germ-spot  is  the  nucleolus. 

14.  Cells  in  the  course  of  their  development  are  subject  to 
numberless  modifications — the  animal  cell,  to  subserve  various 
purposes  in  the  animal  economy ;  the  vegetable  cell,  in  the 
vegetable  economy.     As  if  under  the  immediate  control  of 
intelligence,  they  select  each  its  own  appropriate  substance, 


16  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

rejecting  all  else.  One  set  of  cells  has  for  its  office  the  pro- 
duction of  motion ;  another  set  is  for  the  purpose  of  secre- 
tion ;  another,  for  assimilation  ;  another,  for  absorption  ;  still 
another,  for  reproduction;  and  so  on,  through  all  the  dis- 
similar offices  of  the  animal  economy. 

15.  Cells  vary  in  size  and  shape ;  the  normal  form  is  prob- 
ably spheroidal,  as  in  cells  of  fat ;  but  they  often  become 
many-sided,  sometimes  flattened,  as  in  the  cuticle,  and  some- 
times elongated  into  a  simple  filament,  as  in  fibrous  tissue  or 
muscular  fibre. 

FIG.  2.  FIG.  3. 


FIG.  2  (Leidy).  PROCESS  op  MULTIPLICATION,  or  CARTILAGE  CELLS.—!,  Simple  cartilage 
cell  from  the  embryo.  2,  Increase  of  cartilage  cells  by  division  of  the  primary  cell. 
3,  4,  Groups  of  cartilage  cells,  from  an  adult  articular  cartilage.  Magnified. 

FIG.  3  (Leidy).  PROCESS  OF  DEVELOPMENT  OF  AN  ORGANIC  CELL  FROM  A  GRANULE.— 
1,  A  granule.  2,  A  vesicle  developed  upon  the  granule ;  the  two  constituting  the  nu- 
cleus and  contained  nucleolus.  3,  The  same,  increased  in  size.  4,  5,  Granules  developed  in 
the  contained  liquid  of  the  nucleus.  6,  The  cell-wall  developed  on  the  nucleus.  7,  8,  9, 
Successive  increase  of  the  cell,  and  development  of  granular  contents.  Magnified. 

16.  Cells  multiply  in  three  ways :  1st,  A  cell  may  elongate, 
contracting  in  the  middle  like  an  hour-glass  or  dumb-bell,  by 
the  infolding  of  the  cell-wall,  till  a  complete  division  is  made 
and  two  cells  are  formed,  each  with  its  own  share  of  the 
original  nucleus ;  the  new  cells  divide  in  a  similar  manner, 
and  like  divisions  are  repeated  indefinitely ;  2d,  Another 
form  of  multiplication  is  by  the  division  of  the  nucleus 
within  the  cell;  each  part  appropriates  a  portion  of  the  fluid, 
and  at  length  vesicles  are  formed,  the  old  cell-wall  breaks, 
and  the  vesicles  develop  into  perfect  cells;  and  3d,  Cells  are 
sometimes  developed  de  novo  from  the  protoplasm,  which 
contains  nuclei  and  granules. 


GENERAL   HISTOLOGY  17 

17.  Cells  have  their  period  of  growth,  of  perfection  and 
of  decay.     While  the  vital  force  directs  and   controls  the 
chemical  and  mechanical  agencies,  they  tend  to  preserve  and 
build  up  the  system ;  but  when  the  vital  powers  yield,  they 
tend  to  its  decay,  and,  "  as  if  they  were  the  grave-diggers  of 
Nature,  fulfill  the  old  motto — '  Earth  to  earth  and  dust  to 
dust/" 

I  4.  PRIMARY  TISSUES. — Fibrous   Tissue. — Areolar. — Cartilaginous.— 
Adipose. — Sclerous. — Muscular. — Tubular. — Nervous. 

18.  By  the  various  aggregations  and  transformations  of 
cells  the  different  tissues  of  the  body  are  formed,  and  their 
individual   characters   depend   upon  the  peculiar  selecting 
power  of  these  cells. 

19.  The  PRIMARY  TISSUES  are  reducible  to  the  following : 
the  Fi'brous,  the  Areolar  and  the  Cartilaginous,  which,  col- 
lectively, form  the  Connect'ive  tissues ;  and  the  Ad'iposey  the 
Sclerous,  the  Mus'cular,  the  Tu'bular  and  the  Ner'vous  tissues. 

20.  The  object  of  the  CONNECTIVE  tissues  seems  to  be, 
mainly,  that  of  binding  together  organs  and  their  parts.     It 
has  few  nerves  and  blood-vessels,  and  is,  therefore,  except 
when  inflamed,  nearly  insensible,  and  attended  with   little 
hemorrhage  under  surgical  operation. 

21.  The  FIBROUS  form  of  connective  tissue  is  composed 
of  minute  filaments  arranged  in  parallel  and  somewhat  wavy 
bundles,  marked  with  faint  cross-waves.     It  is  strong,  un- 
yielding and  glistening.     The  fibrous  tissue  has  two  distinct 
forms — the  White  Fibrous  and  the  Yellow  Fibrous. 

22.  The  WHITE  FIBROUS  tissue  is  formed  of  white,  glisten- 
ing, inelastic  bands,  having  longitudinal  creasings,  but  not 
admitting  of  separation  into  filaments  of  determinate  size. 
This  tissue,  by  long  boiling,  is  entirely  resolved  into  Gel'atin. 
The  white  fibrous  tissue  is  found  under  three  forms :  Mem'- 
brane,  Lig'ament  and  Ten' don. 

23.  The  YELLOW  FIBROUS  tissue  is  composed  of  yellow 
elastic  bands  separable  into  their  component  filaments.     It  is 
called  the  Elas'tic  tissue,  elasticity  being  its  chief  charac- 

2* 


18 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


teristic.  It  does  not  gelatinize  by  boiling.  It  is  found  in  the 
middle  coat  of  the  arteries,  in  the  vocal  cords,  between  the 
vertebrae,  and  in  many  other  places  where  elasticity  is  needed. 
The  proportion  between  the  white  and  the  yellow  fibrous 
tissues,  when  found  together,  varies — the  greater  the  elasticity 
required,  the  greater  the  proportion  of  yellow  elastic  fibres. 


FIG.  4. 


FIG.  5. 


FiQ.  4  (Leidy),  FIBROUS  TISSUE. — 1,  Portion  of  tendon,  exhibiting  its  composition  of 
prismatic  bundles  of  fibrous  tissue,  the  filaments  all  parallel  to  one  another.  2,  A  few 
bundles  drawn  from  the  others,  exhibiting  their  union  by  delicate  crossing  filaments 
of  connective  tissue.  3,  One  of  the  varieties  of  fibrous  tissue.  4,  A  single  bundle,  more 
highly  magnified,  with  a  portion  (5)  of  the  filaments  fretted  out. 

FIG.  5  (Ltidy).    ELASTIC  TISSUE.    Highly  magnified. 

Observation. — In  rheumatism  the  connective  white  fibrous 
tissue  is  the  part  chiefly  affected;  hence,  the  large  joints  and 
the  loins,  where  this  tissue  is  most  abundant,  suffer  most. 
Where  there  is  predisposition  to  rheumatism,  the  tendency  to 
it  may  be  lessened  and  attacks  relieved  by  increasing  the 
amount  of  clothing  over  the  part  affected. 

24.  The  AREOLAR  form  of  connective  tissue  consists  of 
bands  of  the  fibrous,  both  of  the  white  and  yellow,  which 
interweave  in  every  direction,  leaving  open  spaces  between, 
called  cells ;  hence  this  tissue  is  sometimes  named  Cellular. 
These  spaces  communicate  through  the  body,  and  contain  a 
fluid  resembling  the  serum  of  the  blood.  Although  the  con- 
nective areolar  tissue  enters  into  the  composition  of  all  organs, 
it  never  loses  its  individuality.  In  the  nerves  and  muscles  it 
shares  neither  the  sensibility  of  the  one  nor  the  contractility 
of  the  other. 


GENERAL   HISTOLOGY.  19 

Observation. — The  swelling  of  the  feet  so  often  seen  in 
feeble  persons  shows  the  peculiarity  of  this  tissue,  which 
allows  the  fluid  to  pass  from  part  to  part  and  accumulate  in 
the  lowest  portion  of  the  body,  while  a  recumbent  position 
restores  the  original  shape.  Great  excess  of  the  fluid  pro- 
duces general  dropsy.  The  free  communication  between  all 
parts  of  this  tissue  is  still  more  remarkable  in  regard  to  air. 
Sometimes,  when  an  accidental  opening  has  been  made  from 
the  air-cells  of  the  lungs  into  the  adjacent  tissue,  the  air  in 
respiration  penetrates  every  part  of  the  surrounding  tissue, 
and  even  of  the  entire  body,  till  inflation  endangers  life  from 
suffocation.  Butchers  often  avail  themselves  of  this  fact, 
inflating  their  meat  to  give  it  a  fat  appearance. 

FIG.  6.  FIG.  7. 


r 

FIG.  Q(Leidy).  PORTION  OF  CONNECTIVE  TISSUE,  from  the  axilla,  exhibiting  its  composi- 
tion of  bundles  and  filaments  of  fibrous  tissue  crossing  in  every  direction.  The  rounded 
bodies  represent  a  single  row  and  a  portion  of  small  groups  of  fat  cells.  Magnified. 

FIG.  7  (Leidy).  1,  PORTION  OF  CONNECTIVE  TISSUE,  from  that  which  envelops  the  flexor 
tendons  of  the  fingers  as  they  pass  beneath  the  annular  ligament,  treated  with  acetic 
acid.  The  pale,  dotted  portion  is  intended  to  represent  the  fibrous  element  fading  away ; 
the  blacker,  tortuous  lines  and  nets  represent  the  mixture  of  elastic  tissue.  2,  3,  Simple 
tortuous  fibres  and  a  net  of  elastic  tissue.  Magnified. 

25.  CARTILAGINOUS  tissue  consists  of  a  solid  mat' rice,  ap- 
parently homogeneous  in  structure,  resembling  ground  glass. 
In  this  are  imbedded  nucleated  cells,  sometimes  arranged 
simply,  but  usually  in  groups.  It  has  no  perceptible  nerves 
nor  blood-vessels.  Cartilage  is  elastic  and  flexible,  but  in- 
extensible — qualities  admirably  essential  to  its  use  in  the 


20 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 


formation  of  the  joints  and  in  giving  to  other  organs  form 
and  strength,  without  too  much  rigidity.  This  tissue  consti- 
tutes the  articular  cartilages,  the  cartilage  of  the  ribs,  of  the 
larynx  (except  the  epiglottis),  of  the  trachea  and  its  divisions, 
and  of  the  nose.  The  bones  usually  originate  in  cartilage, 
which  disappears  as  bony  matter  is  deposited ;  such  cartilage 
is  called  temporary,  while  that  which  continues  till  later  years 
is  called  permanent. 

FIG.  8. 


PIG.  8  (Leidy).  CARTILAGE— section  through  the  thickness  of  the  oval  cartilage  of  the 
nose..  1,  Toward  the  exterior.  2,  Toward  the  interior  surface ;  highly  magnified.  It 
exhibits  groups  of  cartilage  cells  imbedded  in  a  homogeneous  matrice. 

FIG.  9. 


FIG.  9  (Leidy).  SECTION  OF  FIBRO-CARTILAGE  FROM  THE  AURICLE  OF  THE  EAR. — The 
cells  are  seen  imbedded  in  a  fibrous  matrice.  1,  Exterior  surface,  where  the  cells  are 
parallel  to  it.  2,  Toward  the  middle.  Highly  magnified. 

26.  When  the  matrice  assumes  a  fibrous  condition,  Fibro- 
cartilages  are  formed,  as  in  the  inter  vertebral  disks,  the  inter- 
articular  cartilages,  the  epiglottis,  the  cartilages  of  the  ear 
and  Eustachian  tube,  and  those  of  the  eyelids.  Between  pure 
fibrous  tissue  and  pure  cartilage  there  are  various  degrees  of 


GENERAL   HISTOLOGY. 


21 


intermixture.  Fibre-cartilage  unites  the  elasticity  of  carti- 
lage with  the  toughness  of  fibrous  tissue,  and  is  therefore  well 
adapted  to  the  firmest  union  of  bones  accompanied  with 
moderate  flexibility. 

27.  ADIPOSE  tissue  has  the  peculiarity  of  not  being  essen- 
tial to  the  constitution  of  any  organ.  It  is  composed  of  deli- 
cate aggregated  cells,  of  nearly  spheroidal  form,  containing  a 
substance  called  fat.  It  is  found  in  the  interspaces  of  areolar 
tissue  beneath  the  skin  and  around  the  heart  and  kidneys ; 
while  none  is  ever  found  within  the  skull,  the  lungs  and  the 
eyelids,  where  its  presence  would  interfere  with  their  several 


FIG.  10. 


FIG.  11. 


FIG.  10  (Leidy).    GROSSING  BANDS  of  fibrous  connective  tissue. 

FIG.  11  (Leidy).  ADIPOSE  TISSUE,  WITH  CONNECTIVE  TISSUE,  from  the  superficial  fascia 
of  the  abdomen ;  highly  magnified.  The  groups  of  fat  vesicles  .are  observed  contained 
in  the  meshes  of  connective  tissue. 

functions.  Fat  accumulates  more  readily  than  other  matter, 
and  is  the  earliest  removed  in  disease.  It  is  a  storehouse  of 
nutriment,  always  ready  for  use,  and  a  non-conductor  of  heat ; 
it  also  gives  roundness  and  beauty  to  the  form. 

28.  SCLEROUS  tissue  is  found  in  the  bones  and  teeth.     Its 
composition  and  arrangement  vary  at  different  periods  of  life. 


22 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


29.  MUSCULAR  tissue  is  composed  of  fibres,  which  are 
themselves  composed  of  minute  fibres,  called  fi'brillce,  or  fila- 
ments. The  fibres  of  this  tissue  are  of  two  kinds — non- 
striated  and  striated.  The  former  are  soft,  pale,  smooth,  either 
roundish  or  flattened,  and  indistinctly  granulated,  having  no 
markings,  or  striae;  the  latter  are  soft,  yellowish,  prismatic, 
and  composed  of  quadrangular  particles  so  arranged  as  to 
give  transverse  strise.  This  tissue  has  for  its  peculiar  charac- 


FIG.  12. 


FIG.  13. 


Fio.  12  (Leidy).  FIBRILS  FROM  A  MUSCULAR  FIBRE  op  THE  AXOLOTL,  A  BATRACHIAH 
REPTILE  ;  highly  magnified,  a,  Bundle  of  fibrils.  6,  An  isolated  fibre. 

Fio.  13  (Leidy).  Two  PORTIONS  OF  A  MUSCULAR  FASCICULUS,  from  the  trapezius 
muscle;  highly  magnified.  1,  Two  portions  of  a  muscular  fasciculus,  composed  of 
prismatic  striated  fibres  terminating  below,  in  rounded  extremities,  among  the  fibrous 
tissue  of  the  commencing  tendon.  2,  Cut  extremities  of  the  fibres,  showing  their 
prismatic  form.  3,  Delicate  she"ath,  composed  of  obliquely-crossing  filaments  of  fibrous 
tissue.  4,  The  fibres  of  the  commencing  tendons.  Partly  a  diagram. 

teristic,  contractility,  and  is  the  instrument  upon  which  the 
sensible  motions  of  the  body  depend.  It  is  a  good  conductor 
of  electricity,  and  very  sensitive  to  that  agent.  It  has  within 
itself  constant  electrical  currents,  called,  collectively,  the  mus- 
cular current. 

30.  TUBULAR  tissue  consists  of  a  network  of  minute  tubes, 


GENERAL   HISTOLOGY. 


23 


called  cap'illary*  vessels.  These  vessels  connect  the  terminal 
extremities  of  the  arteries  with  the  commencement  of  the 
veins,  but  are  otherwise  closed,  and  never  communicate  ex- 
cept by  imbibition  with  the  structures  through  which  they 
pass.  Their  walls  are  composed  of  exceedingly  thin,  trans- 
parent, structureless  membrane  containing  scattered  nuclei. 
They  vary  in  size,  being  largest  in  the  bones,  and  smallest  in 
the  brain  and  in  the  lungs.  This  tissue  is  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  body,  excepting  the  substance  of  the  teeth,  the 
cartilage  of  the  joints,  the  transparent  part  of  the  eye,  the 
epithelial  tissue,  the  hair  and  the  nails. 


FiO.  14  (After  Wagner.1)  A  PIECE  OF  THE  WEB  OP  A  FROG'S  FOOT,  slightly  enlarged, 
•bowing  the  fine  capillary  network  connecting  the  terminations  of  the  arteries  with  the 
commencement  of  the  veins. 

Fio.  15  (AUen  Thomson).  MINUTE  PIECE  OF  THE  MARGIN  OF  THE  FROG'S  WEB,  show- 
Ing  the  ultimate  capillaries,  connecting  the  end  of  a  small  artery  with  the  beginning 
of  a  minute  rein.  The  oval  blood-corpuscles  are  seen  in  these  vessels,  and  the  arrows 
entering  and  passing  out  of  the  artery  and  vein  indicate  the  course  of  the  blood-current ; 
magnified  about  thirty  diameters. 

31.  The  NERVOUS  tissue  is  distinguished  from  all  other 
tissues  by  its  sensibility.  Like  the  muscular  tissue,  it  has 
constant  electrical  currents.  It  forms  the  essential  substance 
of  the  brain,  spinal  cord  and  nerves.  This  tissue  contains 


*  Lat.,  capillus,  a  hair. 


24 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE, 


three  distinct  microscopical  elements — Nerve- Cells,  or  Gang- 
lionic  Corpuscles;  Gray  or  Gelatinous  fibres;  and  White  or 
Tubular  fibres. 

FIG.  16. 


Fio.  16  (Kolliker  and  Hannover).  1,  Nucleated  cells  from  a  sympathetic  ganglion. 
2,  Branched  or  stellate  cells  from  the  gray  substance  of  the  spinal  cord.  3,  Branched 
cells  from  the  medulla  oblongata.  4,  Simple  and  branched  cells  from  the  convolutions 
of  the  brain.  5,  A  large  cell  from  the  gray  substance  of  the  brain ;  magnified  one  hun- 
dred diameters. 

FIG.  17. 


Fia.  17.  DIAORAM  OF  HUMAN  BRAIN,  IN  VKRTICAL  SECTION,  showing  the  situation  of 
the  different  ganglia  and  the  course  of  the  fibres.  1,  Olfactory  ganglion.  2,  Hemisphere. 
3,  Corpus  striatum.  4,  Optic  thalamus.  5,  Tubercula  quadrigemina.  6,  Cerebellum. 
7,  Ganglion  of  tuber  anmilare.  8,  Ganglion  of  medulla  oblongata. 

32.  The  GANGLIONIC  CORPUSCLES  are  cell-bodies  contain- 
ing pulpy  matter,  with  one  or  more  nuclei  surrounding 
colored  granules.  These  cells  vary  in  shape,  being  roundish, 
pear-shaped,  or  branched  in  a  caudate  or  stellate  manner,  these 
onsets  being  continuous  with  the  cell-wall  and  its  contents,  and 


GENERAL   HISTOLOGY.  25 

often  entering  another  cell  and  connecting  the  two.  These 
nerve-cells  are  found  in  the  brain,  spinal  cord  and  ganglia, 
and  at  the  extremities  of  the  nerves  of  sight  and  hearing. 

33.  The  GRAY  or  GELATINOUS  fibres  are  soft  and  granular, 
with  no  distinct  medullary  sheath.     They  contain  many  dark 
nuclei,  and  are  most  abundant  in  the  sympathetic  ganglia 
and  its  branches. 

34.  The  WHITE  or  TUBULAR  fibres  are  microscopic  tubes. 
The  walls  are  structureless  membrane  enclosing  a  layer  of 
medullated  matter  resembling  fluid  fat,  which  acts  as  a  sheath ; 
within  this  is  a  firmer  part,  or  core,  called  the  band-axis,  or 
axis  cylinder ;  this  is  albuminous. 

35.  The  gray  substance  is  most  abundant  in  the  outer  part 
of  the  brain,  and  the  white  in  the  inner ;  but  the  two  intermix 
more  or  less  in  every  part  of  the  nervous  system. 

§'  5.   MEMBRANES. — Basement  Membrane. — Epithelium. — Serous  Mem- 
brane.— Synovial  Membrane. 

36.  BASEMENT  MEMBRANE  is  an  exceedingly  thin,  deli- 
cate, structureless  layer  of  protoplasm  or  blastema,  resem- 
bling, under  the  microscope,  a  film  of  transparent  gelatine. 
Upon  it,  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  are  imbedded  minute 
epithelial*  cells.     The  membrane  formed  by  these  cells  is 
called  epithe'lium.     The  relation  of  this  structureless  mem- 
brane to  the  epithelium  gives  it  the  name  of  Basement  Mem- 
brane. 

Fro.  18. 


FIG.  18  (Leidy).  DIAGRAM  EXHIBITING  THE  RELATIVE  POSITION  OF  THE  COMMON  ANA- 
TOMICAL ELEMENTS  OF  SEROUS  AND  Mucous  MEMBRANES;  THE  GLANDS,  THE  LUNGS  AND 
THE  SKIN. — 1,  Epithelium,  secreting  cells  or  epidermis,  composed  of  nucleated  cells,  and 
occupying  the  free  surface  of  the  structure  mentioned.  2,  Basement  layer,  represented 
much  thicker  than  natural,  in  comparison  with  the  other  layers.  3,  Fibrous  layer,  in 
which  the  arteries  and  veins  (4)  terminate  in  a  capillary  network.  Magnified. 

*  Gr.,  epi,  upon,  and  tithemi,  I  cover  or  place. 
.?  B 


26  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

37.  From  difference  in  form  and  other  peculiarities,  the 
EPITHELIUM  is  divided  into  several  varieties — as  the  Squa- 
mous  Epithelium,  consisting  of  several  layers  of  thin  scales, 
which  are  flattened  cells  having  a  nucleus  and  a  few  scat- 
tered granules,  as  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth ; 
the  Pavement  Epithelium,  consisting  of  from  one  to  four 
layers  of  nucleated  cells,  six-sided  and  regularly  arranged 
like  the  blocks  of  a  pavement  (whence  the  name),  as  in  tne 
serous  membranes ;  the  Columnar  Epithelium,  consisting  o^  a 

FIG.  19.  FIG.  20. 


FIG.  19  (Leidy).  SQUAMOUS  EPITHELIUM,  consisting  of  nucleated  cells  transformed  into 
broad  scales,  from  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth ;  highly  magnified. 

FIG.  20  (Leidy).  PAVEMENT  EPITHELIUM,  from  a  serous  membrane,  highly  magnified, 
end  seen  to  consist  of  flat,  six-sided  nucleated  cells. 

single  layer  of  six-sided  columnar  cells,  with  a  conical  pro- 
longation terminating '  in  a  progeny  of  developing  cells,  as 
in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  and  intestines; 
the  Ciliated  Epithelium,  having  cells  possessing  at  their 
free  extremity  fine  filamentary  processes  of  the  cell-wall, 
resembling  the  eye-lashes  (whence  the  name).  During  life 
these  cilia  are  endowed  with  a  power  of  moving  rapidly 
backward  and  forward  in  a  wave-like  manner,  reminding 
one  of  the  movement  of  a  field  of  grain  swept  by  a  gentle 
breeze.  Currents  are  thus  produced  in  liquids,  conveying 
them  from  one  part  to  another.  This  kind  of  epithelium  is 
found  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
nose  and  pharynx,  the  Eustachian  tube  and  all  the  respira- 
tory organs. 

38.  Beneath  the  basement  membrane,  and  in  contact  with 
it,  is  a  very  dense  and  vascular  layer  of  areolar  and  elastic 
tissue.  This  triple  arrangement  of  epithelium,  basement 
membrane  and  fibro-areolar  tissue,  constitutes  the  serous,  the 


GENERAL   HISTOLOGY. 


27 


synovial  and  the  mucous  membranes,  the  skin,  the  ducts  of 
all  glands,  and  the  inner  coat  of  the  blood-vessels  and  the 
lymphatics. 

39.  The  SEROUS  MEMBRANE  is  that  portion  which  lines 
the  walls  of  certain  closed  cavities  or  sacs.  It  is  smooth, 
shining  and  moistened  by  a  fluid  called  seVwm,  which  the 
membrane  secretes ;  as  the  pleu'ra,  peritone'um,  pericar' dium, 
arach'noid,  etc. 


FIG.  21. 


FIG.  22. 


Fio.  21  (Letdy).  DIAGRAM  OF  A  VERTICAL  SECTION  OP  THE  Mucous  MEMBRANE  op  THK 
SMALL  INTESTINES  ;  highly  magnified.  1,  Fibrous  layer,  in  which  the  blood-vessels  are 
distributed.  2,  Basement  membrane.  3,  Young  nucleated  cells.  4,  Layer  of  columnar 
cells.  5,  6,  Cells  in  the  act  of  being  shed  or  thrown  off.  7,  Free  ends  of  the  columnar 
cells,  exhibiting  their  six-sided  form.  8,  A  single  columnar  cell,  exhibiting  its  actual 
form  at  all  parts. 

FIG.  22.  DIAGRAM  OP  A  VERTICAL  SECTION  op  THE  BRONCHIAL  Mucous  MEMBRANE.— 
1,  Columnar  ciliated  epithelial  cells.  2,  Cilia.  3,  Nuclei.  4,  Young  cells.  5,  Basement 
membrane.  6,  Fibrous  layer. 

40.  The  SYNOVIAL  MEMBRANE  resembles  the  serous  very 
closely  as  regards  structure  and  the  closed  sacs.  It  also 
secretes  a  fluid,  called  syno'via,  which  is  more  viscid  than  that 
of  the  serous  membrane.  It  has  fringe-like  processes  hanging 
loosely  in  the  joints,  having  large  epithelial  cells,  which  prob- 
ably secrete  the  synovial  fluid.  This  membrane  covers  the 
cartilages,  and  lines  the  ligaments  which  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  joints. 

Observation. — When  the  synovial  membrane  is  ruptured, 
the  synovia  escapes  into  the  surrounding  areolar  tissue,  and 
what  is  popularly  known  as  the  "  weeping  sinew"  is  formed. 


28 

Similar   tumors   in  the  joints  of  lower  animals  are  called 
"  windgalls." 

41.  There  are  two  Mucous  MEMBRANES — the  Gastro-Pul> 
monary  and  the  Urinary.  These  do  not  form  closed  sacs,  like 
the  serous  and  synovial  membranes,  but  both  open  to  the 
surface.  The  mucous  membranes  secrete  a  viscid  fluid,  called 
mu'cus,  and  in  their  glandular  recesses  are  formed  various 
secretions,  as  sali'va,  bile,  tears,  etc.  These  membranes  vary 
in  different  parts  both  in  thickness  and  appearance.  In  the 
nasal  and  air  passages,  the  membrane  is  smooth,  rugose  or 
ridgy  in  the  stomach,  papillous  in  the  tongue  and  villous  in 
the  intestines. 

FIG.  23.  FIG.  24. 


FIG.  23  (Leidy).  DIAGRAM  EXHIBITING  THE  RELATION  OF  A  SEROUS  MEMBRANE  (the 
pleura)  TO  THE  ORGAN  IT  INVESTS  AND  THE  CAVITY  IT  LINES.— 1,  Lung.  2,  Root  of  the 
lung,  which  is  the  only  attached  portion  of  the  organ,  all  others  being  free.  3,  Side  of 
the  thorax.  4,  Diaphragm.  5,  Parietal  pleura.  6,  Pulmonary  or  reflected  pleura. 
7,  Cavity  of  the  pleura.  Magnified. 

FIG.  24  (Leidy).  Mucous  MEMBRANE  FROM  THE  JEJUNUM.—!,  Villi  resembling  val- 
rulse  conniventes  in  miniature.  2,  Tubular  glands :  their  orifices.  3,  Opening  on  the 
free  surface  of  the  mucous  membrane.  4,  Fibrous  tissue.  Magnified. 

42.  The  GASTRO-PULMONARY   Mucous  membrane  com- 
mences at  the  mouth,  enters  the  nostrils,  passes  between  the 
eyelids,  dips  into  the  deep  parts  of  the  ear,  lines  the  trachea 
and  the  air-tubes  of  the  lungs,  and  the  alimentary  canal  from 
one  extremity  to  the  other. 

43.  The  URINARY  Mucous  membrane  lines  the  ducts  con- 
necting the  kidneys  and  the  bladder,  of  which  it  forms  the 
interior  coat ;  also  the  passages  to  the  skin. 


GENERAL   HISTOLOGY.  29 

44.  The  skin  is  continuous  with  the  mucous  membranes, 
and  will  be  described  hereafter. 

Observation. — Like  tissues  readily  assume  similar  con- 
ditions ;  hence  diseases  of  the  skin  or  of  the  serous  or  mucous 
membranes  are  often  transferred  from  one  to  the  other.  In 
diseases  of  the  skin — as  measles,  scarlet  fever,  etc. — if  the 
surface  becomes  damp  or  chilled,  there  is  danger  of  their 
being  transferred  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  air-passages, 
stomach  or  intestines.  In  chronic  diseases  of  the  mucous 
membrane — as  coughs,  catarrh,  diarrhoea  or  dysentery — the 
skin  is  usually  cold,  dry  and  inactive.  By  improving  its 
condition  much  relief  will  be  afforded. 


CHAPTER   III. 

GENERAL   CHEMISTRY. 

§  O,  Solids  and  Fluids. — Proximate  Constituents. — Inorganic. —  Organic. 
— Nitrogenous. — Non-Nitrogenous. —  Ultimate  Chemical  Elements. 

45.  THE  human  body  is  composed  of  solids  and  fluids,  re- 
ducible, by  chemical  analysis,  to  the  same  constituents  and 
elements.     In  different  periods  of  life  the  proportion  of  fluids 
and  solids  varies ;  the  former  being  more  abundant  in  youth 
than  in  old  age.     This  is  one  reason  why  the  limbs  in  child- 
hood are  soft  and  smooth,  but  in  later  years  hard  and  wrinkled. 

46.  If  the  tissues  of  the  body  are  subjected  to  chemical 
analysis,  they  yield  about  ninety  substances,  called  Proximate 
Constituents,  these  being  the  first  chemical  compounds  into 
which   the   tissues   resolve    themselves.      In    living    beings 
vitality  is,  as  it  were,  "  the  architect  who  plans  the  building 
and  sees  that  the  requisite  materials  are  procured  by  the 
chemical  processes  and  worked  up  according  to  his  will." 
Hereupon  arise  many  new  substances  which  cannot  be  arti- 
ficially imitated  7    these  are  called   Organic  proximate  con- 
stituents.    Those  substances  found  in  the  inorganic  kingdom 
also,  and  capable  of  artificial  imitation,  are  called  Inorganic 
proximate  constituents. 

47.  Of  the  INORGANIC  PROXIMATE  CONSTITUENTS,  water 
is  the  most  abundant:  it  exists  in  all  the  tissues;  next  to 
this,  in  relative  quantities,  are  Phosphates  of  Lime,  of  Mag- 
ne'sia,  of  Soda  and  of  Potas'sa ;  Carbonates  of  Lime,  of  Soda 
and  of  Potassa ;  Chloride  of  Sodium  (common  Salt)  and  of 
Potassium ;    and   Fluoride  of  Cal'cium.     Some   compounds 
contain  Iron,  Sil'ica,  Manganese',  and  perhaps  some   acci- 
dental substances,  as  Lead,  Copper  and  Alu'minum.     Am- 

30 


GENERAL   CHEMISTRY.  31 

mo'nia,  in  combination,  is   found   in   the  urine.     Ox'ygen, 
Ni'trogen  and  Carbon'ic  Acid  gas  exist  in  a  free  state. 

48.  The  ORGANIC  PROXIMATE  CONSTITUENTS  are  of  two 
classes.     One  class  contains  the  chemical  element  Azote',*  or 
nitrogen;  hence  its  compounds  are  called  az'otized  or  nitrog'- 
enous;  the  other  has  no  azote,  and  its  compounds  are  named 
non-azotized  or  non-nitrogenous. 

49.  The  NITROGENOUS  class  contains  Albu'rnen  and  its 
allied  substances,  called  albuminoids.     Some  of  the  most  im- 
portant are — Albu'minose,  Fi'brin,  Mus'culin,  Glob'ulin,  Hcem'a- 
tin,  Ca'sein,  Cartila'gin,  Sal'ivin,  Pep'sin,  Pancrea'tin,  Mu'dn, 
Neu'rin,   Ker'atin,  E  las' tin,  Meldnin   and  Biliverd'in;    also 
some  acids,  as  the  Cer'ebrie,  Chol'ic  and  U'ric. 

50.  ALBUMEN  and  the  albuminoids,  together  with  fatty 
matter  (non-nitrogenous),  are  the  great  nutritive  substances 
of  the  animal  economy.     Albumen  f  is  well  known  in  the 
white  of  an  egg ;  whence  its  name.     It  is  found  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  brain  and  nerves ;  in  the  fluid  part  of  the  blood ; 
in  the  moisture  that  pervades  the  muscles  and  other  tissues ; 
in  the  lymph  and  chyle;   and  in  the  mucous,  serous  and 
synovial  secretions.     It  coagulates  by  the  action  of  heat  and 
alcohol,  and  is  dissolved  by  weak  acids  and  alkalies. 

51.  ALBUMINOSE  is  found  in  the  chyle  and  blood  in  a 
liquid  condition,  and  is  a  result  of  the  digestion  of  albu- 
minous, fibrinous,  musculinous  and  caseous  matter  of  food ; 
unlike  albumen,  it  is  not  coagulated  by  heat. 

52.  FIBRIN  is  a  soft,  white,  stringy  substance,  obtained 
from  freshly-drawn  blood  by  whipping  it  with  fine  sticks  or 
wires.     It  coagulates  spontaneously,  assuming  the  form  of 
minute  threads,  or  fibrils ;{  whence  its  name.     Fibrin  is  also 
found  in  the  chyle,  lymph  and  serous  secretions.     It  is  pre- 
cipitated and  hardened  by  alcohol,  and  redissolved  by  weak 
acid. 

53.  MUSCULIN  is  a  peculiar  form  of  fibrin  that  exists  in 

*  Gr.,  a,  not,  and  zoe,  life.  f  Lat.,  albus,  white. 

J  Lat.,  fibra,  a  thread. 


32  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

the  muscles,  or  flesh.  Its  characteristic  property  is  con- 
tractility. Boiling  hardens  it,  while  weak  acids  render  it 
more  soluble. 

54.  GLOBULIN  and  H^MATIN  form  the  contents  of  the  red 
globules  of  the  blood.     Hsematin  contains  about  seven  per 
cent,  of  iron  ;  but  the  color  of  the  blood  is  now  supposed  not  to 
depend  on  the  iron,  but  a  peculiar  substance  named  cru'orin. 

55.  CASEIN  resembles  albumen  in  its  general  properties, 
but,  unlike  albumen,  when  in  solution  it  is  not  coagulated 
by  heat,  but  by  acids.     It  exists  in  solution  in  milk  with 
lac'tin  (milk  sugar)  and  salts.     It  forms  the  curd  in  soured 
milk,  the  casein  being  coagulated  by  the*  lactic  acid  formed 
from  decomposed  lactin. 

56.  CARTILAGIN  is  the  principal  constituent  of  the  con- 
nective tissues,  as  the  so-called  bone  cartilage,  true  cartilage, 
ligaments,  tendons,  fibrous  membranes,  dermis  and  the  areo- 
lar  tissue.     The  basis  of  bone  cartilage  is  os'teine,  with  which 
are  blended  salts  of  lime.     The  basis  of  true  cartilage  is 
called  chon'drigen.     Unlike  albumen,  cartilagin  is  insoluble 
in  water  and  does  not  coagulate  by  heat,  but  is  liquified  by 
boiling  and  changed  into  gel'atin,  or  glue. 

57.  SALIVIN  is  found  in  the  saliva.     It  has  the  peculiar 
property  of  changing  starch  into  a  kind  of  gum  called  dex'- 
trine,  the  dextrine  into  ghtfcose,  or  grape  sugar,  and  this  into 
lactic  acid. 

58.  PEPSIN  is  a  remarkable  and  potent  substance  secreted 
by  the  glands  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach.    This 
secretion  is  a  peculiar  principle  of  the  gastric  juice,  and, 
when  slightly  acidulated,  has  the  property  of  quickly  dis- 
solving coagulated  albumen,  blood,  meats,  fish,  cheese  and 
many  other  substances. 

59.  PANCREATIN  is  the  active  principle  of  the  secretion  of 
the  pancreas.     It  has  three  distinct  actions — 1st,  on  starch ; 
2d,  on  fat;  and  3d,  on  albuminous  matter. 

60.  MUCIN  is  a  substance  found  in  the  different  varieties 
of  mucus,  imparting  to  them  their  viscid  character.     It  is 
usually  mixed  with  other  fluids. 


GENERAL   CHEMISTRY.  33 

61.  NEURIN  is  also  an  albuminoid   substance  connected 
with  the  brain  and  nerves,  upon  which  the  peculiar  charac- 
teristics of  the  nervous  system  are  supposed  to  depend. 

62.  KERATIN  is  the  peculiar  albuminoid  principle  giving 
the  horn-like  character  to  the  hair,  nails  and  cuticle. 

63.  ELASTIN  is  the  substance  peculiar  to  the  elastic  tissue. 
It  is  insoluble  in  all  common  fluids. 

64.  MELANIN  is  a  blackish-brown  coloring  matter  found 
in  the  choroid  coat  and  the  iris  of  the  eye,  in  the  hair  and  in 
the  epidermis.     It  is  most  abundant  in  the  black  and  brown 
races,  but  it  also  exists  in  the  yellow  and  white  races. 

65.  BILIVERDIN  is  the  coloring  matter  of  the  bile.     It  is 
yellow  in  transmitted  light,  and  greenish  in  reflected  light. 
On  exposure  to  the  air  in  its  natural  fluid  condition,  it  ab- 
sorbs oxygen  and  assumes  a  bright  grass-green  color. 

66.  Beside  the  before-mentioned  constituents,  none  of  which 
are  acid  but  mucin,  there  are  several  acids,  among  which 
may  be  named  the  Cerebric  acid  found  in  the  gray  substance 
of  the  brain ;   Cholic  acid  in  the  bile ;  and  Uric  acid  in  the 
urine. 

67.  The  groups  of  NON-NITROGENIZED  or  non-azotized  sub- 
stances are — the  fats,  sugars  and  starch.     The  fats  are  most 
abundant.     These  are  insoluble  in  water,  but  are  dissolved 
by  heat,  alcohol  and  ether.     They  are  found  in  the  brain, 
muscles,  blood  and  chyle. 

68.  The  FATS  of  the  human  body  are  composed  mostly  of 
o'lein  (liquid  fat),  and  ste'arin  and  mar'garin  (solid  fats),  mar- 
garin  being  most  abundant,  and  stearin  least.     The  fats  are 
derived  from  the  fatty  components  of  food,  and  also  from 
transformed  saccharine  compounds.     When  boiled  with  an 
alkali,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  soap,  they  decompose  into 
fatty  acids,  margaric,  stearic  and  oleic  acids,  and  a  sweet, 
viscid  substance  called  glyc'erine. 

69.  SUGARS  are  of  different  kinds,  as  Glu'cose  (grape  sugar), 
in  the  blood  and  chyle;  Liver  sugar,  in  the  liver;  Lac  tin 
(milk  sugar),  in  milk ;    In'osit  (muscle  sugar),  in  muscles. 
LACTIN,  in  contact  with  azotized  matter,  or  &  ferment,  easily 

B* 


34  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

decomposes,  forming  lactic  acid.  All  these  saccharine  and 
acid  substances  are  soluble  in  both  water  and  alcohol. 
STARCH  granules  are  found  in  the  brain,  and  are  named 
Corpora  Amyla'cea.  These  exhibit  the  chemical  reactions 
of  vegetable  starch,  and  are  colorless  and  transparent,  re- 
sembling in  appearance  the  granules  of  Indian  corn. 

70.  The  ULTIMATE  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  enter  into  the 
composition  of  the  body  in  about  the  following  percentage 
proportions : 

GASES.     Oxygen 72. 

Hydrogen 9.1 

Nitrogen 2.5 

Chlorine 085 

Fluorine 08 

SOLIDS.   Carbon 13.5 

Phosphorus 1.15 

Calcium 1.3 

Sulphur 1476 

Sodium - 1 

Potassium 026 

Iron 01 

Magnesium 0012 

Silicon .0002 

100.0000 

71.  The  greater  part  of  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  exist  in 
a  state  of  water,  but  the  dried  residue  still  contains  some 
gaseous  as  well  as  solid  elements. 

72.  Carbon   is   the   most  abundant  element.     In  the  in- 
evitable decomposition  of  the  body,  while  its  hydrogen  and 
nitrogen,  with  part  of  its  carbon  and  oxygen,  are  restored  to 
the  inorganic  world  in  the  shape  of  water,  carbonic  acid  and 
ammonia,  the  rest  of  its  carbon  and  oxygen,  its  chlorine  and 
fluorine,  its  phosphorus  and  sulphur,  and  its  metallic  bases, 
calcium,  sodium,  potassium,  magnesium  and  iron,  with  a  trace 
of  silicon  and  manganese,  revert  to  the  condition  of  inorganic 
salts  and  earths — viz.,  carbonates,  sulphates  and  phosphates, 
chlorides  and  fluorides  of  the  above-named  saline  and  earthy 
bases. 


THE   BONES. 


35 


FIG.  25. 


DIVISION   II. 

MOTOKY    APPAEATUS. 

73.  IN  all  the  movements  connected  with  the  merriments 
of  childhood,  with  the  ceaseless  industry  of  the  toiling  mil- 
lions, with  the  hymning  of  the  praises  of  the  great  I  AM, — 
in  a  word,  in  every  movement  of  the  body,  certain  organs  are 
brought  into  action,  which,  taken  collectively,  constitute  the 
MOTORY  APPARATUS.  The  organs  of  this  apparatus  are  the 
Bones  and  Joints,  the  Muscles  and  Motor  Nerves. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  BONES. 

• 

\  7.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  BONES. — The  Skeleton  and  its  Uses. — Number 
and  Classification  of  the  Bones. — Bones  of  the  Head. — Of  the  Trunk. — 
Of  the  Upper  Extremities. —  Of  the  Lower  Extremities. — The  Joints. — 
Definition  and  Classification. — Immovable  Joints. — Mixed. — Movable. 
— Peculiar  Forms  of  Movable. 

%  74.  THE  INTERNAL  FRAMEWORK  of  the  human  body  con- 
sists of  Bones,  which,  united  by  strong  ligaments,*  constitute 
the  Skeleton. 

75.  These  bones  number  two  hundred  and  eight,  besides 
the  teeth.     For  convenience  they  are  classed  as  the  bones  of 
the  Head,  the  Trunk  and  the  Extremities. 

76.  The  BONES  OF  THE  HEAD  are  divided  into  those  of 
the  Skull,  the  Face  and  the  Ear. 

77.  The  SKULL  is  composed  of  eight  bones — the  Fro  offal, 
occupying  the  portion  called  the  forehead ;  the  two  Tem'j>orcd.. 

*  Lat.,  ligo,  I  bind. 


THE   BONES.  37 

covering  the  part  commonly  known  as  the  temples ;  the  two 
Pari'etal,  forming  the  essential  part  of  the  projection  on  the 
upper  and  lateral  parts  of  the  head  and  uniting  in  the  median 
line  upon  the  top  of  the  skull ;  the  Occip'ital,  at  the  posterior 
part  of  the  skull,  resting  upon  the  atlas  vertebra  and  having 
a  large  orifice  for  the  passage  of  the  spinal  marrow ;  the 
Sphenoid,  situated  across  the  base  of  the  skull,  extending 
from  side  to  side,  having  many  depressions  and  processes, 
articulating  with  all  the  bones  of  the  cranium  and  five  of 
those  in  the  face,  and  serving  as  a  point  of  attachment  for 
twelve  pairs  of  muscles ;  and  the  Eth'moid  bone,  between  the 
sockets  of  the  eyes  and  behind  the  base  of  the  nose. 

FIG.  26. 


Fid.  26.  BONES  OF  THE  HEAD. — 1,  Frontal  bone.  2,  Parietal  bone.  3,  Temporal  bone. 
4,  Occipital  bone.  5,  Nasal  bone.  6,  Malar  bone.  7,  Upper  jaw.  8,  Os  unguis. 
9,  Lower  jaw. 

78.  The  skull-bones  are  formed  of  two  plates  united  by 
porous  bone-substance.  The  external  plate  is  fibrous  and 
tough  ;  the  internal,  dense  and  hard,  hence  called  the  vitreous 
or  glassy, plate.  These  bones  are  united  by  sut'ures;  the  ex- 
ternal plate  having  notched  edges  fitted  together  as  in  the 
dovetailing  of  carpentry ;  the  internal,  plane  edges  in  simple 
4 


.38  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

apposition.  From  infancy  to  the  twelfth  year  the  sutures 
are  imperfect;  from  that  time  to  forty,  distinctly  marked; 
and  in  old  age,  nearly  obliterated. 

Observation. — We  find  no  less  diversity  in  the  form  and 
texture  of  the  skull  than  in  the  expression  of  the  face.  The 
head  of  the  New  Hollander  is  small,  that  of  the  African  is 
compressed,  while  that  of  the  Caucasian  is  distinguished  for 
its  beautiful  oval  form.  In  texture  the  Greek  skull  is  close 
and  fine,  while  the  Swiss  is  softer  and  more  open. 

79.  The  FACE  has  fourteen  bones — the  two  No! sal,  forming 
the  bridge  or  base  of  the  nose ;  the  two  Ma'lar  (cheek-bones) ; 
the  two  Lach'rymal;  the  two  Superior  Max'illary,  articulating 
with  two  bones  of  the  skull  and  all  the  bones  of  the  face  ex- 
cepting the  lower  jaw;  the  two  Palate  bones,  forming  the 
orbits  of  the  eyes,  the  outside  of  the  nose,  and  the  most  of  the 
roof  of  the  mouth  known  as  the  hard  palate ;  the  two  Tur'~ 
binated,  in  the  nostrils ;  the  Inferior  Maxillary,  or  mandible, 
the  only  movable  bone  of  the  face,  articulating  with  the  tem- 
poral bones ;   and  the  Vo'mer,  which  separates  the  nostrils 
from  each  other. 

80.  The  EAR  has  three  small  bones,  which  aid  in  hearing. 

81.  The  BONES  OF  THE  TRUNK  number  fifty-four — twenty- 
four  Ribs;  twenty-four  bones  in  the  Spinal  Column;  four  in 
the  Pel' vis;  the  Sternum  (breast-bone) ;  and  the  Os  Hyoi'des 
(at  the  base  of  the  tongue).     These  bones,  with  the  soft  parts 
attached,  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  two  cavities,  called  the 
Tho'rax  (chest)  and  the  Ab'domen. 

82.  The  THORAX  is  formed  by  the  sternum  in  front,  the 
ribs  at  the  sides  and  the  twelve  dorsal  vertebrae  at  the  back. 
The  natural  form  of  the  chest  is  conical,  with  the  apex  above ; 
but  fashion,  in  a  multitude  of  instances,  has  inverted  the 
order.     The  thorax  contains   the  heart,  the  lungs  and  the 
large  blood-vessels. 

83.  The  STERNUM  is  situated  in  the  middle  line  of  the 
front  of  the  chest,  and  is  held  in  place  chiefly  by- the  ribs. 
Each  side  is  marked  by  seven  pits  for  receiving  the  cartilages 
of  the  corresponding  true  ribs.     In  childhood  the  sternum 


THE   BONES.  39 

consists   of  several   cartilaginous   pieces,   which   ossify  and 
unite  in  later  years. 

84.  The  RIBS  are  connected  with  the  spinal  column,  twelve 
on  each  side.  The  first  seven,  called  True  ribs,  are  connected 
\\  ith  the  sternum  by  means  of  cartilage ;  of  the  remaining 
five,  called  False  ribs,  three  are  connected  by  cartilage  with 
each  other,  while  the  two  lower  are  free  at  their  anterior  ex- 
tremity, hence  called  floating  ribs.  In  length,  the  ribs  in- 
crease from  the  first  to  the  eighth,  then  again  diminish  to 
the  twelfth ;  in  breadth,  they  gradually  diminish  from  the 
first  to  the  last ;  in  direction,  the  first  rib  is  horizontal,  all 
the  others  are  oblique  and  downward. 

FIG.  27. 


lro.  27.  THE  FRONT  VIEW  OF  THE  THORAX.—!,  2,  3,  The  sternum.  4,  5,  The  spinal 
column.  6,  7,  8,  9,  The  first  ribs.  10,  The  seventh  rib.  11,  Cartilage  of  the  third  riV. 
12,  The  floating  rib. 

85.  The  SPINAL  COLUMN  is  composed  of  twenty-four  bones, 
called  Verifebrce.  Each  vertebra  consists  of  a  main  part, 
called  the  body,  and  seven  projections,  called  processes;  four 
of  these,  employed  in  binding  the  bones  together,  are  called 
articulatory ;  two  of  the  remaining,  transverse;  and  the  other, 


40 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 


spinous.  The  last  three  give  attachment  to  the  muscles  of 
the  back.  The  projections  are  so  arranged  that  immediately 
behind  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  a  canal  is  formed  for  the 
Medul'la  Spina'lis  (spinal  cord),  sometimes  called  the  pith  of 
the  back-bone. . 

86.  The  VERTEBRAE  are  arranged  in  three  classes,  accord- 
ing to  their  situation  ;  the  seven  of  the  neck  are  called  Cer'vi- 
cal;  the  twelve  of  the  back,  Dor' sal;  and  the  five  of  the  loins, 
Tjum'bar  vertebrse. 


FIG.  28. 


FIG.  29. 


V 6 

FIG.  28.    THE  SPINAL  COLUMN,   Lateral  view.     1,  2,  3,  The  vertebrae.     4,  Sacrum. 
5,  Coccyx. 
Fia.  29.  THE  CHEST  AND  PELVIS,  Front  view. 

87.  The  CERVICAL  VERTEBRA  are  smaller  than  those  of 
other  regions;  they  are  concave  above  and  convex  below; 
hence,  when  articulated,  they  lock  one  into  the  other.     The 
processes  are  short,  bifid  and  horizontal,  permitting  a  par- 
tial  rotary   movement.      The    upper    vertebra    articulating 
with  the  occipital  bone  is  called  the  At' las;  the  second,  the 
Ax'is. 

88.  The  DORSAL  VERTEBRAE  furnish  support  for  the  ribs, 


THE   BONES,  41 

which  are  so  connected  with  the  transverse  processes  as  to 
impede  rotation.  The  spinous  processes  are  very  long  and 
extend  obliquely  downward.  The  bodies  are  larger  than 
those  of  the  cervical  vertebrae,  and  increase  in  size  according 
to  the  weight  to  be  sustained. 

89.  The  LUMBAR  VERTEBRA  have  broad  bases,  with 
large,  strong  and  horizontal  processes.  These  vertebrae  show 
those  transitional  changes  which  are  calculated,  by  an  easy 
gradation,  to  unite  separate  vertebrae  into  solid  bone. 

FIG.  30.  FIG.  31. 


FIG.  30.  A  VERTEBRA  OF  THE  NECK.— 1,  The  body  of  the  vertebra.  2,  The  spinal  canal. 
4,  The  spinous  process,  cleft  at  its  extremity.  5,  The  transverse  process.  7,  The  inferior 
articulating  process.  8,  The  superior  articulating  process. 

Fio.  31.  A  CERVICAL  VERTEBRA. — 1,  The  cartilaginous  substance  that  connects  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebrae.  2,  The  body  of  the  vertebra.  3,  The  spinous  process.  4,  4,  The 
transverse  processes.  5,  5,  The  articulating  processes.  6,  6,  A  portion  of  the  bony  bridge 
or  arch  that  assists  in  forming  the  spinal  canal  (7). 

90.  Covering  the  front  of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  is  the 
Anterior  Vertebral  lAgament,  consisting  of  a  broad  range  of 
fibres  closely  blended  and  of  variable  length.    This  ligament, 
besides  joining  the  vertebrae  firmly  together,  gives  attach- 
ment to  the  pharynx,  the  oesophagus,  the  thoracic  duct,  the 
aorta  and  other  large  blood-vessels.     On  the  posterior  part 
of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  within  the  spinal  canal,  is 
the  Posterior    Vertebral  Ligament,  remarkably  smooth   and 
shining.     Both  the  anterior  and  posterior  ligaments  adhere 
very  closely  to  the  intervertebral  substance  and  to  the  bodies 
of  the  vertebrae. 

91.  Between  the  arches  of  the  vertebrae  behind,  are  the 

4* 


42  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

Yellow  Ligaments  (Ligamenta  Subflava),  filling  up  the  intervals 
and  completing  the  spinal  canal  from  the  axis  to  the  sacrum ; 
they  are  two  in  number  on  each  side,  making  twenty-three 
pairs.  They  are  attached  to  the  anterior  surface  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  arches  above  and  the  posterior  surface  of  the 
upper  part  of  those  below,  between  the  spinous  and  the  trans- 
verse processes,  and  are  separated  by  a  vertical  fissure.  Their 
greatest  length  is  in  the  neck,  but  their  greatest  thickness  is 
in  the  lumbar  series.  They  combine  great  strength  with  re- 
markable elasticity,  thus  differing,  in  an  essential  particular, 
from  ordinary  ligaments. 

FIG.  32. 


FIG.  32.  FRONT  VIEW  OF  THE  PELVIS.—!,  1,  The  innominata.    2,  The  sacrum.    3,  The 
coccyx.    4,  4,  Socket,    e,  The  junction  of»the  sacrum  and  lower  lumbar  vertebra. 

92.  Between   every   pair  of  true  vertebrse  are   discoidal 
plates  of  white  fibrous  tissue,  called  Intervertebral  Ligaments. 
These  ligaments  are  inelastic  in  structure,  but  very  elastic  by 
arrangement,  for  the  decussation  of  the  concentric  lamina 
enables  them  to  yield  to  pressure  and  to  resume  their  original 
position  when  the  pressure  is  removed ;  and  this  elasticity  is 
greatly  increased  in  the  whole  disk  by  the  presence  of  a  cen- 
tral pulp  that  occupies  the  hollow  circle  within  the  liga- 
mentous  structure. 

93.  The  PELVIS  is  composed  of  the  two  Innomina'ta  (name- 
less bones),  the  Sa'crum  and  the  Coccyx. 


THE   BONES.  43 

94.  The  INNOMINATUM  is  the  hip-bone;  in  it  is  a  deep 
socket  for  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone.     In  the  centre  of  this 
cavity  is  a  depression  to  which  the  round  ligament  of  the 
thigh-bone  is  fixed. 

95.  The  SACRUM  (so  called  because  offered  by  the  ancients 
in  sacrifice)  is  a  wedge-shaped  bone,  between  the  innominata. 
In  early  life  it  is  composed  of  five  vertebrae,  which  become 
united  in  later  years.    It  is  the  basis  of  the  vertebral  column. 
The  texture  of  the  sacrum  is  very  light  and  spongy. 

96.  The  COCCYX,*  at  the  lower  extremity  of  the  spinal 
column,  varies  at  different  ages :  in  infancy  it  is  cartilaginous ; 
in  adult  age,  formed  of  four  pieces  of  bone  or  vertebrae ;  in 
after  life  it  becomes  a  continuous,  blended  structure. 

97.  The  UPPER  EXTREMITIES  contain  sixty-four  bones: 
the  Scap'ula   (shoulder-blade) ;   the   Clavicle   (collar-bone) ; 
the  Hu'merus  (arm-bone)  ;  the  Ra'dius  and  Ulna  (fore-arm) ; 
the  Car'pus  (wrist) ;   the  Meta-car'pus  (palm  of  the  hand) ; 
and  the  Phalan'ges  (fingers  and  thumb.) 

98.  The  SCAPULA,  a  flat,  thin,  triagular  bone,  is  situated 
upon  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  chest.     It  lies  upon 
muscles  by  which  it  is  held  in  place  and  moved  in  different 
directions. 

99.  The  CLAVICLE,  f  shaped  like  the  italic  /,  is  attached 
at  one  extremity  to  the  sternum,  and  at  the  other  to  the 
scapula. 

100.  The  HUMERUS  is  a  long,  cylindrical  bone,  joined  at 
the  elbow  with  the  ulna  of  the  fore-arm ;  and  at  the  scapular 
extremity  lodged  in  the  glenoid  cavity. 

101.  The  ULNA|  is  the  small  bone  of  the  fore-arm,  and 
occupies  the  inner  side.     It  articulates  with  the  humerus  at 
the  elbow,  forming  a  perfect  hinge-joint. 

102.  The  RADIUS  §  is  placed  on  the  outside  (the  thumb 
side)  of  the  fore-arm,  and  nearly  parallel  to  the  ulna.     It  is 
larger  than  the  ulna,  and  articulates  with  it,  both  at  the 

*  From  cuckoo,  on  account  of  resemblance  to  the  cuckoo's  bill. 

f  Lat.,  clav'is,  a  key.  $  It.,  an  ell,  a  measure.  %  Lat.,  a  spoke. 


44 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


elbow  and  at  the  wrist.     The  radius  also  articulates  with  the 
first  row  of  bones  at  the  wrist  forming  the  wrist-joint. 

103.  The  CARPUS  has  eight  bones,  arranged  in  two  rows, 
and  so  firmly  bound  together,  as  to  permit  little  movement. 
One  row  articulates  with  the  fore-arm,  the  other  with  the 
metacarpus. 

FIG.  33.  FIG.  34. 


FlQ.  33.  THE  HUMERUS. — 1,  The  shaft.  2,  The  large,  round  head  that  is  placed  in  the 
glenoid  cavity.  3,4,  Processes  for  attachment  of  muscles.  5,  A  process,  called  the  ex- 
ternal elbow.  6,  A  process,  called  the  internal  elbow.  7,  The  articulating  surface  upon 
which  the  ulna  rolls. 

FIG.  34.  THE  FORE-ARM. — 1,  The  ulna.  2,  The  radius.  3,  The  upper  articulation  of  the 
radius  and  ulna.  4,  The  articulating  cavity,  in  which  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
humerus  is  placed.  5,  The  upper  extremity  of  the  ulna,  called  the  olecranon  process. 
which  forms  the  point  of  the  elbow.  6,  Spaces  between  the  radius  and  ulna,  filled  by  the 
intervening  ligament.  7,  The  styloid  process  of  the  "ulna.  8,  The  surface  of  the  radius 
and  ulna,  where  they  articulate  with  the  bones  of  the  wrist.  9,  The  styloid  process  of 
the  radius. 

104.  The   METACARPUS*  has   five   bones;   upon  four  of 
*  Gr.,  meta,  after  or  beyond,  and  karpos,  wrist. 


THE   BONES. 


45 


which,  are  placed  the  first  range  of  finger-bones,  and  upon 
the  other,  the  first  thumb-bone.  The  metacarpal  bone  of  the 
thumb  is  the  shortest,  and  it  is  also  disconnected  with  and 
divergent  from  the  others. 

105.  The  PHALANGES*  of  the  fingers  have  three  bones, 
while  the  thumb  has  but  two.  The  fingers  are  named  in 
succession,  the  thumb,  the  index,  the  middle,  the  ring,  and 
the  little  finger. 

FIG.  35.  FIG.  36. 


If  10.  oij.  THE  WRIST. — U,  The  ulna.  R,  The  radius.  S,  The  scaphoid.  L,  The  semi- 
lunar.  C,  The  cuneiform.  P,  The  pisiform.  The  last  four  form  the  first  row  of  carpal 
bones.  T,  T,  The  trapezium  and  trapezoid.  M,  Magnum.  U,  Unciform.  The  last  four 
form  the  second  row  of  carpal  bones.  1, 1, 1, 1,  Metacarpal  bones. 

Fio.  36.  THE  HAND.— 10, 10, 10,  The  metacarpal  bones  of  the  hand.  11, 11,  First  row 
of  finger-bones.  12, 12,  Second  row  of  finger-bones.  13,  13,  Third  row  of  finger-bones. 
14, 15,  The  bones  of  the  thumb. 

106.  The  LOWER  EXTREMITIES  contain  sixty  bones :  the 
Fe'mur   (thigh-bones) ;    the  Patel'la  (knee-pan) ;  the  Tib'ia 
(shin-bone)  ;  the  Fib'ula  (small  bone  of  the  leg)  ;  the  Tarsus 
(instep)  ;  the  Metatar'sus  (middle  of  the  foot)  ;  and  the  Pha- 
lan'ges  (toes). 

107.  The  FEMUR  f  is  the  strongest  and  longest  bone  of  the 
skeleton.     It  supports  the  weight  of  the   head,  trunk   and 
upper  extremities. 


*  Gr.,  row. 


f  LaU,  thigh. 


46 


ANATOMY.   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


108.  The    PATELLA*   is   a  small    chestnut-shaped   bone, 
placed  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
femur,  and  connected  with  the  tibia  by  a  strong  ligament. 

109.  The  TiBiAf  is  situated  at  the  fore  and  inner  part  of 
the  leg.     It  is  triangular  in  shape. 

FIG.  37.  FIG.  38 


Fia.  37.  THE  FEMUR. — 1,  The  shaft.  2,  A  projection  (trochanter  minor),  to  which  are 
attached  strong  muscles.  4,  The  trochanter  major,  to  which  are  attached  the  large 
muscles  of  the  hip.  3,  The  head  of  the  femur.  5,  The  external  projection  or  condyle 
of  the  femur.  6,  The  internal  projection  or  condyle.  7,  The  surface  of  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  the  femur,  that  articulates  with  the  tibia,  and  upon  which  the  patella  slides. 

FIG.  38.  THE  BONES  OF  THE  LEG.—!,  The  tibia.  5,  The  fibula.  8,  The  space  between 
the  two,  filled  with  the  interosseous  ligament.  6,  The  articulation  of  the  tibia  and  fibula 
at  their  upper  extremity.  2,  The  malleolar  process,  or  external  ankle.  3,  The  inter-mal- 
leolar  process,  or  internal  ankle.  4,  The  surface  of  the  lower  extremity  of  the  tibia,  that 
unites  with  a  tarsal  bone  to  form  the  ankle-joint.  7,  The  upper  extremity  of  the  tibia, 
npon  which  the  lower  extremity  of  the  femur  rests. 


*  Lat.,  little  dish. 


f  Lat.,  &  flute. 


THE   BONES.  47 

110.  The  FIBULA*  is  smaller  than  the  tibia  and  of  similar 
shape.     It  is  firmly  bound  to  the  tibia  at  each  extremity. 

111.  The  TARSUS  is  formed  of  seven  irregular  bones,  firmly 
bound  together  by  a  few  large  and  strong  ligaments,  and  by 
a  great  number  of  short  fibres  that  extend  between  the  con- 
tiguous bones,  both  on  the  back  and  sole  of  the  foot. 

112.  The  METATARSUS  consists  of  five  bones,  they  bear  a 
close  resemblance  to  the  metacarpus  of  the  hand.    The  tarsal 
and  metatarsal  bones  are  so  united  as  to  give  the  foot  the 
form  of  a  double  arch. 

113.  The  PHALANGES  of  the  toes  have  fourteen  bones,  each 
of  the  small  toes  having  three,  and  the  great  toe,  two  rows. 

FIG.  39. 


FIG.  39.  THE  UPPER  SURFACE  OP  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOOT.— 1,  The  surface  of  the  astra- 
gulus,  or  ankle-bone,  where  it  unites  with  the  tibia.  2,  The  body  of  the  astragulus. 
3,  Calcis,  or  heel-bone.  4,  The  scaphoid.  5,  6,  7,  The  cuneiform.  8,  The  cuboid.  9,  9,  9, 
The  metatarsal  bones.  10, 11,  The  phalanges  of  the  great  toe.  12, 13, 14,  The  phalanges 
of  the  other  toes. 

114.  The  JOINTS  are  formed  by  the  ends  of  bones,  usually 
enlarged  and  variously  united  according  to  the  purposes  to 
be  subserved.  Generally,  one  surface  is  somewhat  convex 
and  the  other  correspondingly  concave,  the  two  parts  being 
beautifully  fitted  to  each  other;  associated  with  these,  are 
the  Cartilages,  Ligaments,  and  the  Synovial  Membrane. 
With  slight  modifications,  the  classification  of  joints  now 
adopted  was  proposed  by  Galen  nearly  two  thousand  years 
ago ;  all  the  articulations  being  distributed  into  three  groups — 
the  Immovable  (Synarthrosis)  ;  the  Mixed  (Amphiarthrosis)  ; 
and  the  Movable  (Diarthrosis). 

*  Lat.,  a  clasp. 


48  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

115.  The  IMMOVABLE  JOINTS  include  the  several  kinds  of 
suture.     A  suture  is  called  Serrated  when  the  zigzag  edges 
are  united  as  in  the  external  plate  of  the  skull ;  iSqua'mose, 
when  the  edges  are  beveled  so  that  one  overlaps  the  other  as 
in  the  union  of  the  temporal  and  parietal  bones;  Lim'bous 
when  the  borders  of  the  adjacent  bones  are  elevated,  as  in 
the  union  of  the  parietal  and  occipital  bones.     Sometimes  a 
false  suture  occurs  called  Harmonia,  where  the  opposed  edges 
are  smooth  and  even,  as  in  the  internal  plate  of  the  skull, 
the  upper  jaw-bones,  the  palate,  and  other  bones.    The  fitting 
of  the  teeth  into  their  sockets,  as  a  nail  is  driven  into  a  board, 
is  called  Gomphosis:*  these  are  improperly  classed  with  the 
joints. 

116.  The  MIXED  JOINTS  are  those  in  which  the  opposed 
surfaces  of  the  bones  are  joined  directly  together  by  some 
intermediate  soft  substance,  which  is  fibrous  externally,  and 
more  or  less  cartilaginous  toward  its  central  part ;  as  between 
the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae,  and  the  two  upper  parts  of  the 
sternum. 

117.  The  MOVABLE  JOINTS  are  the  most  perfect  articula- 
tions, being  freely  movable,  for  which  purpose,  they  are  covered 
with  cartilage  where  the  surfaces  are  in  contact,  and  provided 
with  synovial  membrane,  and  connecting  ligaments.     They 
are  of  three  kinds — the  Planiform,  the  Hinge,  and  the  Sail 
and  Socket  joints.     The  Planiform  is  found  where  the  sur- 
faces of  the  bones  are  more  or  less  plane,  and  the  movements 
gliding,  as  in  the  articulations  of  the  tarsus  and  metatarsus, 
the  carpus  and  metacarpus ;  in  those  of  the  collar-bone ;  of 
the  lower  jaw;  of  the  articular  processes  of  the  cervical  and 
dorsal  vertebrae;    of  the  ribs  with    the  vertebrae,  and  their 
costal  cartilages  with  the  sternum ;  and  of  the  tibia  with  the 
fibula:  The  Hinge  joint  (Ginglyform),  where  there  is  motion 
in  two  directions  only,  backward  and  forward,  as  at  the  knee 
and  the  elbow ;  the  ankle  and  the  wrist ;  and  the  joints  of  the 
phalanges  of  the  fingers,  and  the  toes.     In  this  joint,  the  end 

*  Gr.,  gomphos,  a  nail. 


THE   BONES.  49 

of  one  bone  is  so  modeled  as  to  present  a  median  groove,  and 
two  lateral  projections;  while  the  end  of  the  other  has  a 
median  projection,  and  two  lateral  grooves:  The  Ball  and 
Socket  joint  (Enarthrosis),  also  called  Rotary,  where  there  is 
free  movement  in  all  directions ;  it  consists  of  a  cup-like 
cavity  in  one  bone,  and  a  rounded  extremity  to  fit  it,  in  the 
other  bone,  as  seen  in  the  hip  and  shoulder  joints;  the 
socket  at  the  hip  is  called  the  Acetab'ulum;*  at  the  shoulder, 
the  Glenoid  cavity. 

118.  There  are  certain  forms  of  movable  joints  which  re- 
quire special  description.   The  articulation  between  the  upper 
ends  of  the  radius  and  ulna,  may  be  called  a  ring  or  collar 
joint;  for  the  convex  head  of  the  radius  plays  into  a  very 
shallow  cavity  of  the  ulna,  and  is  bound  to  it  by  a  ring  of 
ligament  passing  around  the  head  of  the  radius.     At  the 
wrist,  by  a  similar  arrangement,  the  head  of  the  ulna  plays 
into  the  radius.     The  joint  permitting  the  rotary  motion  of 
the  head,  is  somewhat  similar ;  a  tooth-like  projection  of  the 
axis  playing  into  the  anterior  part  of  the  ring  of  the  atlas  is 
held  in  position  by  transverse  ligaments  crossing  behind  it. 
The  articulation  allowing  the  nodding  motion  of  the  head, 
really  consists  of  two  separate  joints,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
median  plane ;  these  joints  are  between  the  lower  skull-bone 
and  the  atlas. 

§  8.  HISTOLOGY  OF  THE  BONES. — Formation  of  Temporary  Cartilage. 
Intra- Cartilaginous  Mode  of  £  one- Formation.  —  Intr  a- Membranous 
Mode.  Periosteum.  Endosteum.  Cartilages  of  the  Joints.  Synovial 
Membrane.  Ligaments. 

119.  The  primitive  basis,  or  plasma  of  the  bone,  is  a  sub- 
transparent,   glairy   matter    containing    numberless    minute 
corpuscles.     It  gradually  acquires   firmness,  and  nucleated 
cells  appear,  indicating  the  change  into  cartilage.     As  these 
cells  increase  in  number  and  size,  they  become  aggregated  in 
rows,  or  columns,  with  intercellular  tracts  where  ossification 

*  Lat.,  acetum,  vinegar,  from  resemblance  to  the  vinegar-cup  of  the 
ancients. 

C 


50  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE. 

is  about  to  begin.  In  the  cartilaginous  basis  of  long  bones, 
these  rows  are  vertical  to  the  ends;  in  that  of  flat  bones,  to 
the  margin. 

120.  The  first  appearance  of  bone  is  that  of  minute  granules 
in  the  intercellular  tracts.  Afterward,  the  cartilage  corpuscles 
become  filled  with  these  granules  in  all  parts  excepting  their 
nuclei,  which  remain  isolated  in  the  bony  substance.  From 
these  proceed  minute  canals,  which  become  enlarged,  forming 
the  cavities  called  Lacu'nce.  These  everywhere  connect  with 
each  other  by  minute  tubes,  called  Canalic'uli.  One  layer 

FIG.  40.  FIG.  41. 


FIG.  40  (Ltidy).    AN  OSSEOUS  LACUNA,  exhibiting  its  numert  is  diverging  canaliculi ; 
highly  magnified. 
FIG.  41  (Lessing).    HAVEKSIAN  CANAL,  lacunas  and  connecting  canaliculi. 

of  cells  after  another  is  thus  converted  into  bony  plates,  till 
the  whole  column  is  filled  excepting  a  fine  central  tube  called 
the  Canal  of  Havers.  This  microscopic,  osseous  cylinder  is 
called  an  ossicle,  and  is  a  true  miniature  of  any  one  of  the 
long  bones.  The  compact  portion  of  all  bones  is  made  up  of 
these  ossicles,  which,  under  the  microscope,  resemble  bundles 
of  pipe-stems,  placed  side  by  side ;  the  interspaces  being  filled 
with  -lamellated  bone-substance.  This  mode  of  bone-forma- 
tion, is  called  Intra-cartilaginous. 

121.  There  is  another  mode  of  bone-development  widely 
distributed  through  the  body,  called  Intra-membranous ;  as 
seen  in  the  flat  bones.  The  membrane  in  which  this  ossifica- 


THE   BONES. 


51 


tion  takes  place  seems  to  consist  of  soft,  amorphous  matter, 
containing  granular  corpuscles.  From  certain  points,  called 
centres  of  ossification,  the  growing  bone  shoots  into  the  soft 
substance  in  the  form  of  transparent  fibres  which  gradually 
become  charged  with  earthy  salts.  The  number  of  these 
centres  varies  in  different  bones — the  parietal  having  one; 
the  frontal,  two ;  the  occipital,  four ;  and  others,  still  more. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  corpuscles  become  the  lacunae  of  the 
bone.  By  the  fibres  radiating  from  the  centres  of  ossifica- 
tion, little  grooves  are  formed  which  become  the  canals  of 
Havers.  The  lacunae  connect  with  each  other  and  with  the 
Haversian  canals ;  thus  establishing  a  free  communication 
between  all  parts  of  the  bone. 

Fir..  42. 


Fws.  42  (Leidy).  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  BONE  FROM  THE  SHAFT  OF  THE  FEMTTK; 
highly  magnified.  The  large  circular  orifices  are  transverse  sections  of  the  Havers 
canals,  surrounded  by  concentric  layers  of  osseous  substance.  Between  the  latter  are 
ueen  the  lenticular  cxcavatiuun  or  lacuna?  intercommunicating  by  means  of  canaliculi. 


52 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 


122.  The  long  bones  are  hollow  cylinders  compact  upon 
the  exterior,  and  cancellated,  or  spongy  within.  This  open 
texture  increases  toward  the  ends,  which  it  entirely  fills  ex- 
cepting the  very  thin,  hard  wall.  The  cylindrical  cavity  is 
filled  with  a  yellowish  fat  called  Medul'la,  consisting  of  soft, 
delicate  adipose  cells. 

FIG.  43. 


FIG.  44. 


FIG.  43  (Leidy).  LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OP  THE  PROXIMAL  EXTREMITY  OF  THE  FEMUR, 
exhibiting  the  arrangement  of  the  spongy  substance.  1,  2,  Positions  in  which  tho  com- 
pact substance  apjpears  to  resolve  itself  into  a  series  of  arches. 

FIG.  44.  A  VERTICAL  SECTION  OP  THE  KNEE-JOINT. — 1,  The  femur.  3,  The  patolla. 
6,  The  tibia.  2,  4,  Ligaments  of  the  patella.  6,  Cartilage  of  the  tibia.  12,  The  cartilage 
of  the  femur.  *  *  *  *,  The  synovial  membrane. 

123.  With  the  exception  of  the  cartilage-tipped  extremities, 
the  bones  are  invested  with  a  dense,  white-fibrous  membrane, 
called  Peri'osteum;*  and  even  at  the  joints  it  may  be  traced 
over  the  capsular  ligaments,  thus  realizing  the  opinion  of  the 
ancients  that  the  periosteum  formed  a  complete  sac  for  the 
whole  skeleton.  Nor  is  this  true  of  the  external  only ;  for, 
continuous  with  the  periosteum,  and  lining  the  medullary 
cavity  and  various  openings  of  the  bone,  there  is  a  web-like 


Lat.,  peri,  around,  and  os,  a  bone. 


THE    BONES.  53 

and  very  vascular  membrane  of  extreme  tenuity,  called  En- 
dos'teum,  *  or  Internal  Periosteum. 

124.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  movements  of  bones  upon 
each  other,  they  are  covered  at  the  joints,  with  a  thinnish 
layer  of  CARTILAGE  or  gristle — a  tough,  elastic,  pearly-white 
substance,  very  smooth  on  the  free  surface  (25).    Upon  con- 
vex surfaces,  it  is  thickest  in  the  centre,  while  upon  concave 
surfaces,  it  is  thickest  toward  the  circumference.     This  car- 
tilage is  sometimes  interposed  as  a  ring,  forming  a  movable 
socket,  which,  like  the  friction- wheels  of  machinery,  aids  the 
motion  of  the  joint.     This  arrangement  is  seen  in  the  lower 
jaw,  the  cartilage  being  attached  to  the  synovial  membrane, 
but  perfectly  movable  and  following  the  movements  of  the 
jaw,  thus  preventing  dislocation. 

125.  The  SYNOVIAL  MEMBRANE  (40)  secretes  a  viscid 
fluid,  called  Syn'ovia,  which  lubricates  the  movable  joints. 
This  membrane  is  of  three  kinds; — the  Articular  Capsules, 
the  Bursce  Mucosce,  and  the  Sub-cutaneous  Synovial  Capsules. 
The  Articular  Capsule  forms  a  complete  sac,  which  covers  the 
articular  surface  of  one  bone,  and  is  thence  reflected  to  the 
other,  adhering  closely  to  the  borders  of  each  of  the  car- 
tilaginous surfaces.     The  Bursce  Mucosce,  are  pouches  of  syno- 
vial membrane  interposed  between  bones  and  the  tendons 
that  play  upon  them  like  cords  upon  pulleys ;  they  also  occur 
where  tendons  or  muscles  move  upon  ligaments,  fibro-car- 
tilages,  or  upon  each  other.   Tendons  moving  through  grooves 
of  bone  are  enclosed  in  a  synovial  tube  which  is  reflected 
upon  itself  so  as  to  line  the  groove  within  which  the  motion 
takes  place.     The  Sub-cutaneous   Capsule,  or  membrane,  is 
found  wherever  the  skin  is  frequently  moved  over  a  resisting 
part,  as  between  the  skin  and  patella  at  the  knee.    Wherever 
a  number  of  tendons  move  upon  one  another,  this  membrane 
is  folded  around  and  among  them ;  it  appears  to  have  the 
same  function  as  the  bursse  mucosae. 

126.  Outside  the  synovial  membrane,  and  more  or  less 

*  Gr.,  within,  and  os,  bone. 
5* 


54  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE. 

connected  with  it,  are  the  special  ties  of  the  joints,  called 
LIGAMENTS.  These  ligaments  are  composed  of  white-fibrous 
tissue  and  are  named  Cap'sular,  Band-like,  and  Funic'ular. 
The  Capsular  Ligaments  are  cylindrical  sacs,  extending  com- 
pletely around  the  joints,  and  blending  with  the  periosteum,. 
This  form  is  found  with  the  ball-and-socket  joint.  The  hip 
and  the  shoulder  joints  furnish  perfect  examples  of  the  liga- 
mentous  capsule.  The  Band-like  Ligaments  are  broad  bands 
of  parallel  fibres,  found  with  the  hinge-joint ;  and  sometimes, 
where  great  strength  is  needed,  as  accessory  to  the  capsular 
ligament.  The  Funicular  Ligaments  are  cords  round  or  flat, 
which  extend  from  one  bone  to  another,  sometimes  within 
and  sometimes  without  the  joint.  An  example  is  seen  in  the 
two  ligaments  crossing  each  other  within  the  knee-joint,  also 
in  the  single  ligament  within  and  connecting  the  ball-and- 
socket  joint  of  the  hip. 

FIG.  45.  FIG.  46.   • 


-  PIG.  45  (Leidy).  THE  RIGHT  KNEE-JOINT,  laid  open  from  the  front.  1,  Articular  sur- 
face of  the  femur.  2,  3,  Crucial  ligaments.  4,  Insertion  of  one  of  these  ligaments  into 
the  tibia.  6, 7,  Internal  and  external  semi-lunar  fibro-cartilages.  8,  Ligament  of  the 
patella  turned  down,  so  as  to  exhibit  the  synovial  bursa  (9)  beneath.  10,  Superior  tibio- 
fibular  articulation.  11,  Interosseous  membrane. 

FIG.  46  (Leidy),  FRONT  VIEW  OF  THE  RIGHT  KNEE-JOINT.— 1,  Tendon  of  the  quadri- 
ceps extensor  muscle.  2,  Patella.  3,  Ligament  of  the  patella,  or  tendinous  insertion  of 
the  muscle  just  mentioned.  4,  4,  Capsular  ligament.  5,  6,  Internal  and  external  lateral 
ligaments.  7,  Superior  tibio-fibular  articulation. 


THE   BONES.  55 

\  9,  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  BONES. — Chemical  Composition  of  the  Bones. 
— Experiments  showing  Earthy  and  Animal  Matter. 

127.  Bones  are  composed  of  both  animal  and  mineral  mat- 
ter ;  the  animal  matter  being  in  excess  in  early  life,  and  the 
mineral,  in  old  age.     The  average  proportion  is  about  thirty- 
three  per  cent,  animal  matter  (cartilage  and  blood-vessels) ; 
and  sixty-seven  per  cent,  mineral,  of  which  fifty-one  parts  are 
bone-earth  (phosphate  of  lime) ;  eleven  parts  chalk  (carbonate 
of  lime) ;  the  remaining  parts  are  fluor  spar  (fluoride  of  cal- 
cium) ;  phosphate  of  magnesia;  and  common  salt  (chloride  of 
sodium). 

Observation. — To  show  the  earthy  without  the  animal  mat- 
ter, burn  a  bone  in  a  clear  fire,  and  it  becomes  white  and 
brittle,  the  animal  part  having  been  consumed.  To  show 
the  animal  without  the  earthy  matter,  immerse  a  slender 
bone,  for  a  few  days,  in  weak  acid  (one  part  muriatic  acid 
and  six  parts  water)  and  it  becomes  flexible,  the  earthy  mat- 
ter having  been  removed. 

\  IO.  PHYSIOLOGY  OP  THE  BONES.— General  Uses  of  the  Bones. — 
Adaptation  of  their  Structure  to  their  Uses.  Skill  as  shown  in  the 
Skull.— In  the  Spinal  Column.— In  the  Ribs.— In  the  Pelvis.— In  the 
Upper  Extremities. — In  the  Lower  Extremities. — In  the  Long  Bones. 
The  uses  of  the  Joints.  Classification  of  the  Joints. —  Of  Movable  Joints. 
Function  of  the  Synovia.  Of  the  Cartilages.  Of  the  Ligaments.  Of 
the  Periosteum.  Perfection  of  this  part  of  the  Animal  Fabric. 

128.  THE  BONES  serve  as  the  framework  of  the  system ; 
as  bases  for  the  attachment  of  muscles;  as  levers  for  the 
organs  of  locomotion ;  as  pulleys  for  the  passage  of  tendons ; 
and  as  protection  for  the  delicate  internal  organs.     In  their 
adaptation  to  their  several  offices,  they  exhibit  a  perfection 
of   mechanism   worthy   the   infinite   mind   of   the  DIVINE 
ARCHITECT. 

129.  In  the  minutest  structure  of  the  bones  as  revealed  by 
the  microscope,  we  find  the  delicate  tissues  so  disposed  as  to 
give  the  greatest  amount  of  strength  and  lightness,  and  a 
certain  degree  of  elasticity — qualities  essential  to  the  per- 


56  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

formance  of  their  several  offices.  In  their  more  general 
structure,  we  see  regard  to  the  same  qualities,  the  exterior 
being  dense  and  compact,  the  interior,  spongy,  or  cancellated. 
Take  any  bone,  or  series  of  bones,  and  note  their  peculiar 
configurations  and  the  purposes  to  be  subserved,  and  there 
appears  the  same  marked  evidence  of  special  care  and  skill- 
ful mechanism. 

130.  In  the  arrangement  of  the  SKULL  for  the  protection 
of  the  brain,  the  oval  form  (the  form  best  adapted  to  resist 
pressure  equally  applied  on  all  sides) ;  the  thickened  base 
where  the  most  important  part  of  the  brain  lies ;  the  strong 
and  narrow  prominences,  both  in  front  and  back,  where  most 
exposed  to  violence ;  the  tough  and  hard  plates  to  resist  the 
penetration  of  sharp  substances ;  the  intervening  spongy  layer 
to  diminish  vibrations ;  the  separate  bones,  and  the  serrated 
unions  of  the  external  plates,  also  to  lessen  shocks ;  the  simple 
contact  of  plane  edges  in  the  internal  vitreous  plate,  where 
zigzag  edges  would   be  easily  broken ;   the  projections,  de- 
pressions, and  apertures  for  the  safe  passage  of  nerves  and 
blood-vessels — all    combine   to   accomplish    the   one   object, 
protection. 

131.  To  construct  the  SPINAL  COLUMN  was  no  easy  me- 
chanical problem.     These  offices  were  to  be  taken  into  the 
account :  1.  It  must  support  the  head ;  2,  furnish  an  axis  of 
support  for  the  other  parts  of  the  body ;  3,  allow  a  bending 
and  somewhat  rotary  movement;  4,  furnish  a  basis  for  the 
attachment  of  muscles ;   5,  provide  passages  and  protection 
for  the  spinal  cord  and  nerves ;  6,  the  whole  must  be  arranged 
with  reference  to  the  importance  and  delicacy  of  the  brain. 

132.  To  furnish  proper  support,  it  must  possess  firmness 
and  strength ;   these  are  secured  by  the  broad  bases  of  the 
vertebrae,  which  increase  in  size  according  to  the  increase  of 
weight  to  be  supported,  by  the  powerful  ligaments  extend- 
ing the  length  of  the  column,  and  by  the  interlocking  of  the 
projections  of  the  vertebrae :  To  secure  the  necessary  rotary 
movement,  there  are  short  horizontal  processes  in  the  cervical 
and  lumbar  regions,  while  those  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae,  where 


THE   BONES.  57 

movement  is  not  required,  are  long  and  extend  downward ; 
flexibility  and  firmness  are  two  qualities  difficult  to  unite, 
but  here  the  union  is  effected  by  making  the  vertebrae  of 
short  bones  and  increasing  their  number,  and  by  the  me- 
chanical arrangement  of  the  fibres  of  the  disks  between  the 
vertebrae:  To  furnish  an  attachment  for  muscles,  are  the 
dense  processes,  which  vary  in  size,  form,  and  direction,  ac- 
cording to  the  requirements  of  the  muscles  to  be  attached : 
To  provide  for  the  spinal  cord,  each  vertebra  has  a  perfora- 
tion, and  these  openings,  coming  directly  over  each  other, 
form  a  bony  canal,  while  at  the  sides  of  this  canal,  are 
apertures  for  the  passage  of  nerves ;  the  spinal  cord  is  still 
farther  protected  by  the  elastic  ligaments  between  the  arches 
of  the  vertebrae,  allowing  no  openings  in  the  bending  of  the 
body;  and  by  the  number  of  the  vertebrae,  for  were  there 
only  three  or  four  bones,  the  cord  would  be  injured  at  every 
angle :  The  number  of  vertebrae,  the  cartilage  cushions,  and 
the  four  curves  of  the  column,  all  tend  to  secure  the  brain 
from  shocks  it  would  otherwise  receive,  from  walking,  leap- 
ing, and  running. 

133.  The  KIBS  serve  to  protect  the  delicate  organs  of  the 
chest.     These  slender  bones  should  be  elastic  and  movable : 
The  first  quality  is  secured  by  the  cartilaginous  union  to  the 
sternum ;  the  second,  by  their  cartilages,  their  articulations 
with  the  spine,  and  their  oblique  position. 

134.  The  PELVIS  not  only  furnishes  support  for  the  upper 
part  of  the  body,  and  the  articulations  of  the  lower  extremi- 
ties, but  also  serves  as  a  base  for  the  attachment  of  the  power- 
ful erector  muscles  of  the  spine,  the  muscles  for  moving  the 
lower  limbs,  and  the  muscles  which  shut  in  the  abdominal 
and  pelvic  cavities. 

135.  The  form  and  proportion  of  the  UPPER  EXTREMITIES 
relate  to  the  hand,  which  belongs  exclusively  to  man,  and  gives 
the  power  of  execution  to  the  human  mind :  Thus,  the  arm  is 
longer  than  the  fore-arm,  and  this,  longer  than  the  hand, 
securing  greater  mobility,  flexibility,  and  power  of  adaptation 
as  we  approach  this  delicate  organ  of  prehension.     It  is  the 

C* 


58 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


relative  position  of  the  four  fingers  to  the  thumb,  however, 
which  principally  stamps  the  character  of  the  hand,  as  this 
construction  permits  its  adaptation  to  every  shape,  and  gives 
that  complete  dominion  which  it  possesses  over  the  various 
forms  of  matter. 

136.  The  LOWER  EXTREMITIES  have  a  strong  analogy  to 
the  upper,  the  differences  being  only  such  as  are  necessary  to 
constitute  them  organs  of  locomotion  rather  than  of  prehen- 
sion; hence,  their  solidity,  at  the  expense  of  their  mobility. 
The  tarsal  and  metatarsal  bones  form  a  strong  arch  toward 
the  inner  and  lower  surface  of  the  foot,  protecting  the  vessels, 
nerves,  and  tendons,  passing  from  the  leg  to  the  foot,  and  the 
opposite. 

FIG.  47. 


FIG.  47.  A  SIDE  VIEW  OF  THE  BONES  OF  THE  FOOT,  SHOWING  ITS  ARCHED  FORM.— The 
arch  rests  upon  the  hed  behind,  and  the  'ball  of  the  toes  in  front.  1,  The  lower  part  of 
the  tibia.  2,  3,  4,  5,  Bones  of  the  tarsus.  6,  The  metatarsal  bone.  7,  8,  The  bones  of  the 
great  toe. 

137.  The  shafts  of  long  bones  are  made  hollow,  giving  not 
only  lightness  but  strength,  according  to  the  well-known  prin- 
ciple in  mechanics,  that,  with  a  given  amount  of  material,  a 
hollow  cylinder  will  sustain  more  weight  than  a  solid  one, 
both  being  of  the  same  height :  (The  same  principle  is  illus- 
trated in  the  culms  of  grasses.)  We  find  the  walls  most 
compact,  and  the  cavity  broadest  at  the  middle  of  the  cylin- 
der, the  part  subjected  to  the  greatest  strain ;  we  find  the  ex- 
tremities enlarged,  to  give  a  broader  surface  for  the  attach- 
ment of  muscles,  and  often  to  change  the  direction  in  the 


THE    BONES.  59 

action  of  muscular  power;  also  more  spongy  in  texture,  to 
increase  the  size  without  corresponding  increase  of  weight. 

138.  THE  JOINTS.  The  uses  of  the  joints  are  to  enable  the 
body  to  sustain  greater  weight  (as  several  short  pillars  will 
support  more  weight  than  a  single  pillar  of  the  same  height 
and  thickness) ;  to  dimmish  the  force  of  blows  or  shocks ;  to 
afford  freedom  of  movement;  to  provide  fulcrums  for  the 
various  levers ;  to  modify  the  direction  in  the  action  of  mus- 
cular power,  and  to  determine  the  plane  of  action. 

139.  For  simple  union   without   movement,  we  find   the 
Immovable  joint;  for  great  strength  and  little  movement, 
the  Mixed  joint;   and   for  full  freedom  of  movement,  the 
Movable  joint.     Of  the  movable  joints  for  motion  in  one 
plane  and  two  directions,  we  find  the  Hinge-joint;   for  the 
gliding  movement,  the  Planiform  joint ;  and  for  free  rotary 
motion,  the  Ball-and-Socket  joint.     At  the  hip,  the  socket  is 
very  deep,  giving  strength;  at  the  shoulder,  it  is  shallow, 
giving  unrestricted   motion;    everywhere  the   configuration 
and  the  use  correspond. 

140.  The  use  of  the  SYNOVIA  is  to  enable  the  surfaces  of  the 
bones  to  move  more  easily  upon  each  other,  preventing  fric- 
tion and  consequent  wear.     No  machine  of  human  invention 
manufactures  for  itself  the  necessary  lubricating  fluid,  but, 
in  the  animal  mechanism,  it  is  supplied  in  proper  quantities, 
applied  in  the  proper  places,  and  at  the  proper  time. 

141.  CARTILAGE  tips  -the  articular  extremities  of  bones, 
facilitating  the  sliding  motion,  and  deadening  shocks ;  and  in 
various  parts  of  the  body  it  serves  as  an  elastic  cushion, 
yielding  on   compression   and  regaining  its  form  when  the 
pressure  is  removed. 

142.  The  function  of  the  LIGAMENTS  is  to  bind  together 
the  bones  of  the  system.     By  them  the  lower  jaw  is  bound  to 
the  temporal  bones,  and  the  head  to  the  neck ;  they  extend 
the  length  of  the  spinal  column,  between  the  vertebrae,  and 
from  one  spinous  process  to  another ;  they  bind  the  ribs  to 
the  vertebrae,  and  the  sternum  ;  the  sternum  to  the  clavicle ; 
the  clavicle  to  the  first  rib  and  the  scapula ;  the  scapula  to 


60  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

the  humerus;  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm  at  the  elbow-joint 
and  also  at  the  wrist ;  the  bones  of  the  wrist  to  each  other, 
and  to  those  of  the  hand ;  and  these  to  each  other,  and  to 
those  of  the  fingers  and  thumb :  In  the  same  manner  they 
bind  the  bones  of  the  pelvis  together ;  and  these  to  the  femur, 
or  thigh-bone ;  and  this  to  the  two  bones  of  the  leg  and  the 
patella,  or  knee-pan ;  and  so  on  to  the  ankle,  foot  and  toes,  as 
in  the  upper  extremities.  The  bones  of  the  wrist  and  those 
of  the  foot  are  as  firmly  fastened  as  if  bound  by  clasps  of 
steel. 

143.  The  PERIOSTEUM  serves  to  transmit  blood-vessels  into 
the  bone,  thus  furnishing  nutriment;   it  gives   insertion  to 
muscles,  tendons  and  ligaments ;  obviates  the  effects  of  fric- 
tion ;   strengthens  the  whole  skeleton  as  an  investing  mem- 
brane, and   possesses  some  agency  in  the  process  of  ossifi- 
cation. 

144.  We  have  noticed  but  a  few  of  the  many  wonderful 
examples  of  skill,  wisdom  and  benevolence  exhibited  in  the 
internal  framework  of  the  animal  fabric.     Each  bone,  how- 
ever small,  illustrates  some  profound  principle  of  science; 
each  is  perfect  in  its  adaptation  to  a  specific  use.     The  whole 
structure  is  a  faultless  piece  of  mechanism,  in  which  every 
known   principle  of  architecture  and   dynamics   has   been 
brought  into  service. 

•s 

\  11.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  BONES. — Effect  of  Exercise  upon  the  Bones  of 
Children. — Effect  of  Compression. —  Of  Stooping.  Treatment  of  Frac- 
tures.— Of  Sprains. —  Of  Felons. 

145.  The  health  of  the  bones  is  promoted  by  regular  exercise. 
The  kind  and  amount  of  labor,  should  be  adapted  to  the  age, 
health,  and  development  of  the  bones ;  neither  the  cartilaginous 
bones  of  the  child,  nor  the  brittle  bones  of  the  aged  man,  are 
adapted  to  long-continued  and  severe  exercise.     While  pro- 
tracted exercise  in  childhood  is  injurious,  moderate  and  regu- 
lar labor  favors  a  healthy  development  and  consolidation  of 
the  bones.     In  middle  age,  the  proportions  of  animal  and 
earthy  matter  are  usually  such  as  to  give  the  proper  degree 


THE   BONES. 


61 


of  flexibility,  firmness  and  strength,  with  little  liability  to 
injury. 

146.  The  lower  extremities  of  the  very  young,  are  not  adapted 
to  sustaining  much  weight;  hence,  to  induce  a  child  to  walk, 
or  to  stand  by  chairs,  while  the  bones  of  the  lower  limbs  are 
imperfectly  developed,  is  ill-advised  and  productive  of  serious 
injury.  The  "bandy"  or  "bow"  legs  are  thus  produced. 
The  benches  or  chairs  for  children  in  a  school-room,  should 
permit  the  feet  to  rest  upon  the  floor,  otherwise  the  weight  of 
the  limbs  below  the  knee,  may  cause  the  flexible  bone  of  the 
thigh  to  become  curved ;  the  chairs  should  also  have  suitable 
backs,  and  the  child  be  allowed  fre.quent  change  of  position. 


FIG.  48. 


FIG.  49. 


FIG.  48.  NATURAL  POSITION  when  the  feet  aro  supported. 
FIG.  49.  UNNATURAL  POSITION  when  a  seat  is  too  high. 

147.  Compression  of  the  chest  should  be  avoided.  In  youth, 
the  ribs  are  very  flexible,  and  a  small  amount  of  pressure 
will  increase  their  curvature,  particularly  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  waist.  By  tight  or  "  snug"  clothing  the  ribs  are  drawn 
down,  and  the  space  between  them  lessened,  so  that  in  some 


62 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


instances,  the  anterior  extremities  of  the  lower  ribs  are  brought 
quite  together ;  hence,  the  apparel  should  be  loose  and  sup- 
ported by  the  shoulders,  both  for  children  and  adults. 

148.  An  erect  position  both  in  sitting  and  standing  should  be 
carefully  maintained.  The  spinal  column  naturally  curves 
from  front  to  back,  but  not  from  side  to  side.  The  admirable 
arrangement  of  the  bones  and  cartilages  permits  a  great  variety 
of  motions  and  positions,  the  elasticity  of  the  cartilages  always 
tending  to  restore  the  spine  to  its  natural  position ;  but  if  a 
stooping,  or  a  lateral  curved  posture  be  continued  for  a  long 
time,  the  compressed  edges  of  the  cartilages  lose  their  power 
of  reaction,  and  finally,  one  side  becomes  thinned,  while  the 
other  is  thickened.  These  wedge-shaped  cartilages  produce 
permanent  curvature  of  the  spine,  which  is  often  attended 
with  disease  of  the  spinal  cord. 


FIG.  50. 


FIG.  51. 


Fio.  50.  A  CHEST  well  proportioned. 
FIG.  51.  A  CHEST  fashionably  deformed. 


149.  The  student,  seamstress,  and  artisan,  frequently  ac- 
quire a  stooping  position,  by  inclining  forward  to  bring  their 
books  or  work  nearer  the  eyes.  The  desk  of  the  pupil  is 


THE    BONES.  63 

often  higher  than  the  elbow  as  it  hangs  from  the  shoulder  at 
rest,  consequently,  in  drawing,  writing,  and  often  in  studying, 
one  shoulder  is  elevated  and  the  other  depressed,  distorting 
the  spine.  In  the  daily  employments  of  life,  children"  should 
early  be  taught  to  use  the  left  hand  and  shoulder  more  freely. 
Distortions  of  the  chest  necessarily  accompany  deformity  of 
the  spine,  and  disease  of  the  heart  and  lungs  follows,  compared 
to  which,  the  loss  of  symmetry  is  a  minor  consideration. 

FIG.  52. 


FIG.  52.  A  DEFORMED  THORAX  AND  SPINAL  COLUMN. 

150.  Eminent  physicians,  both  in  this  country  and  Europe, 
state  that,  among  the  fashionably  educated,  not  one  female  in 
ten  escapes  deformities  of  the  shoulders  and  spinal  column. 
The  student,  to  prevent  as  well  as  to  cure  slight  curvatures 
of  the  spine,  should  walk  with  a  book,  or  a  heavier  weight 
upon  the  head.  Porters  and  laborers  of  some  countries,  bear 
very  great  burdens  upon  their  heads,  and  walk  at  a  rapid 
pace  with  comparative  ease.  Itinerant  toymen  carry  securely 


64 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


their  trays  of  fragile  merchandise,   because  the  head   and 
spinal  column  are  erect. 


FIG.  53. 


FIG.  63.  CORRECT  POSITION  IN  SITTING.—!,  1,  The  spinal  column  straight ;  the  shoul- 
ders of  equal  height. 

151.  Fractured  or  diseased  bones  and  ligaments  should  re- 
ceive special  attention.  In  fractured  bones,  a  surgeon's  care  is 
not  only  needed  to  adjust  the  parts,  but  for  several  weeks,  to 
watch  the  reunion,  that  the  limb  may  not  be  crooked  or 
shortened.  In  sprains,  the  ligaments  are  not  usually  lacerated, 
but  strained  and  twisted,  causing  much  pain,  and  afterward 
inflammation  and  weakness  of  the  joints.  To  effect  a  cure, 
there  should  be  absolute  rest  for  days,  and  perhaps  weeks. 
More  persons  are  crippled  from  ill-cared-for  sprains,  than 
fractured  bones.  Persons  enfeebled  by  disease,  particularly 
scrofula,  cannot  be  too  assiduous,  in  adopting  an  early  and 


THE   BONES. 


65 


proper  treatment  of  injured  joints,  to  prevent  the  affection, 
called  "  white  swelling." 

Observation. — The  disease  called  "Felon"  is  an  inflamma- 
tion that  commences  in  or  beneath  the  periosteum.  It  is 
attended  with  severe,  throbbing  pain,  and  the  unyielding 
structure  of  the  parts  prevents  much  swelling.  The  only 
successful  treatment  of  this  painful  affection,  is  an  early,  free 
opening  through  the  periosteum  to  the  surface  of  the  bone. 
The  earlier  the  incision  is  made,  the  less  the  risk  and  the 
suffering. 

FIG.  54. 


FIG.  54.  INCORRECT  POSITION  us  SITTING.— 1, 1,  Three  curves  of  the  spine;  the  shonl* 
.lors  of  unequal  height. 

6* 


66 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


THE   BONES.  67 

\  12.  COMPARATIVE  OSTEOLOGY. — Classification  of  Animals  according 
to  their  Plan  of  Structure.  Classification  of  Vertebrates.  Compare 
Spinal  Columns  of  Vertebrates. — Bones  of  the  Head. — Of  the  Thorax. — 
Of  the  Extremities. 

152.  The  tissues,  cells,  and  chemical  composition  of  all 
animals  are  essentially  the  same,  but  their  different  appoint- 
ments in  the  plan  of  creation  require  special  conformations. 
Animals  have  therefore  been   arranged,  according  to  their 
plan  of  structure,  into  four  sub-kingdoms : — 1.  VERTEBRATA, 
including  man  and  other  animals  having  an  internal  skeleton 
with  a  back-bone  as  its»basis,  the  bones  being  composed  chiefly 
of  phosphate  of  lime :  2.  ARTICULATA,  comprising  animals 
having  an  external  skeleton  made  up  of  similar  segments,  or 
rings,  consisting  mostly  of  the  carbonate  of  lime ;  as  insects, 
lobsters  and  worms :  3.  MOLLUSCA,  including  soft-bodied  ani- 
mals covered  with  a  hard  shell  consisting  of  one  or  two  pieces, 
also  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime ;    as  cuttlefish,  oysters, 
clams,  and  snails :  4.  R  ADI  ATA,  having  no  proper  skeleton  or 
shell-covering,  but  parts  more  or  less  symmetrically  arranged 
about  a  vertical  axis ;  as  star-fishes,  sea-anemones  and  coral 
animals. 

153.  The  Vertebrata  are  classified  as  Mammals  (including 
man,  monkeys,  bats,  quadrupeds,  etc.),  Birds,  Reptiles  and 
Fishes. 

154.  The  VERTEBRAL  COLUMN  of  all  Mammals  is  similar 
to  that  of  man.     The  cervical  vertebrae,  with  two  exceptions, 
number  seven :    the  dorsal,  average  thirteen ;    the  lumbar, 
from  three  to  seven;  the  sacral,  usually  four;  the  caudal, 
from  four  (the  number  of  the  coccyx  in  man)  to  forty-six. 
The  length  of  any  part  of  the  column  seems  to  depend  not  so 
much  upon  the  number  of  the  vertebrae  as  upon  their  length ; 
thus  we  find  seven  cervical  vertebrae  in  the  long-necked  giraffe 
and  in  the  short-necked  mole.    In  Birds,  the  flexibility  of  the 
neck  enables  any  part  of  the  body  to  be  reached  by  the  beak. 
This  is  owing  to  the  ball-and-socket  articulations,  and  to  the 
great  number  of  cervical  vertebrae,  which  in  the  swan  are 
twenty-four;   in  the  ostrich,  eighteen;  and  in  the  domestic 


68  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

cock,  thirteen.  The  dorsal  vertebras  vary  from  seven  to 
eleven,  and  are  generally  consolidated  into  one ;  but  in  birds 
that  do  not  fly,  they  remain  distinct  and  movable.  The 
lumbar  and  sacral  vertebrae  are  united  into  one.  The  last 
caudal  vertebra  has  a  large,  strong  process  for  the  support 
of  the  large  feathers.  In  Reptiles,  the  vertebrae  vary  in  num- 
ber from  some  twenty-four,  as  in  the  frog,  to  four  hundred,  as 
in  some  snakes,  as  the  Python.  Perhaps  about  one  hundred 
is  the  average  number.  In  Fishes  there  are  but  two  kinds  of 
vertebra,  the  dorsal  and  the  caudal,  and  these  vary  in  num- 
ber from  twenty  to  two  hundred.  The  vertebral  bodies  pre- 
sent a  conical,  cup-like  depression  on  each  side,  which  contains 
a  gelatinous  fluid  having  the  same  use  as  the  elastic  inter- 
vertebral  substances  in  mammals. 

FIG.  56. 


is 


FIG.  56.  SKELETON  OP  A  BIRD.— 1,  The  head.  2,  Cervical  vertebrae.  3,  Dorsal  and  lum- 
bar vertebrae.  4,  Scapula.  5,  Clavicle.  6,  Coracoid  bone.  7,  Sternum.  8,  Humerus. 
9,  Radius.  10,  Ulna.  11,  Carpus.  12,  Metacarpus.  13,  13,  Phalanges  (fingers).  14, 
Femur.  15,  Tibia.  16,  Fibula.  17,  Tarsus.  18,  Metatarsus.  19,  Phalanges  (toes). 


THE  BONES.  69 

155.  The  BONES  OF  THE  HEAD  of  all  the  Mammals  re- 
semble, in  many  points,  those  of  man.     In  some  quadrupeds, 
as  the  horse  and  the  cow,  the  frontal  bone  is  in  two  parts ;  id 
others,  the  two  parietal  bones  are  united :  Between  the  two 
upper  maxillary  bones,  are  two  small   bones    called  inter- 
maxillary; the  lower  jaw  consists  of  two  pieces.     In  Birds, 
the  bones  of  the  head,  in  number  and  position,  resemble 
mammals,  but  they  are  early  united,  leaving  no  trace  of  the 
sutures.     The  superior  mandible,  or  upper  jaw,  of  the  bird  is 
so  articulated  with  the  cranium  as  to  admit  of  motion  inde- 
pendent of  the  lower  jaw  (which  never  occurs  in  mammals), 
and  the  inferior  mandible,  instead  of 'being  articulated  directly 
with  the  cranium,  is  connected  through  the  intermedium  of 
a  distinct  bone  called  the  Os  Quadratum.     In  Reptiles  the 
head-bones  are  irregular  in  form,  and  greatly  vary  in  num- 
ber.    In  Fishes  the  bones  of  the  head  are  numerous  and 
irregular,  and  their  study  is  a  matter  of  much  interest  in 
acquiring  a  full  knowledge  of  Natural  History. 

156.  The  obvious  use  of  the  CLAVICLE  is  to  maintain  the 
shoulders  apart;    hence  in  quadrupeds,  where  its   presence 
would  be  a  defect,  it  is  wanting,  as  in  the  horse  and  cow. 
The  clavicles  of  Birds  are  peculiar ;  they  unite  at  their  ante- 
rior extremity,  forming  a  forked  bone  called  furcula,  or  wish- 
bone.    In  birds  of  powerful  flight,  as  the  eagle,  the  clavicles 
are  very  strong ;  in  others,  as  the  domestic  turkey,  they  are 
weak.    Connecting  the  scapula  to  the  sternum  is  the  cor'acoid 
bone,  which  is  placed  side  by  side  with  the  furcula,  and  is 
the  main  source  of  support  to  the  wings  in  flight.     In  some 
Reptiles,  as  the  tortoise,  both  the  clavicle  and  the  coracoid 
bone  are  found,  while  in  others,  as  serpents,  both  are  want- 
ing.    In  Fishes  the  true  clavicle  is  wanting,  but  in   some 
species  there  is  a  modified  form  of  the  coracoid  bone,  free  at 
its  lower  extremities,  which  may,  perhaps,  be  considered  as 
homologous  with  the  coracoid  bone  or  clavicle  of  the  higher 
animals. 

157.  The  SCAPULA  is  present  in  all  Mammals  and  Birds, 
and  most  Reptiles  and  Fishes. 


70  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

FIG.  57. 


FIG.  57.  SKELETON  OF  A  TORTOISE.—!,  Cervical,  2,  Dorsal,  3,  Lumbar  vertebrae.  4, 
Scapula.  5,  Clavicle.  6,  Coracoid  bone.  13,  Htimerus.  14,  Ulna.  15,  Radius.  16, 
Carpus.  17,  Phalanges  (fingers).  7,  Femur.  8,  Tibia.  9,  Fibula.  10,  Tarsus.  11,  Meta- 
tarsus. 12,  Phalanges  (toes). 

158.  The  STERNUM  of  birds  is  the  largest  bone  in  their 
bodies.  It  has  upon  its  anterior  surface  a  ridge  resembling 
the  keel  of  a  ship,  for  the  support  of  the  pectoral  muscles 
used  in  flying.  The  size  is  proportioned  to  the  powers  of 
flight;  hence  in  the  little  humming-bird,  which  is  on  the 
wing  most  of  the  day,  it  reaches  the  maximum  of  develop- 
ment. Of  the  Reptiles,  serpents  have  no  sternum ;  but  in 
turtles,  it  has  an  extraordinary  development,  and  extends 
from  the  base  of  the  neck  to  the  commencement  of  the  tail, 
forming  the  ventral  part,  of  the  shell-covering.  In  some 
Fishes,  the  sternum  is  represented  by  a  chain  of  bones. 


THE   BONES.  71 

159.  The  RIBS  are  much  alike  in  all  Mammals.  In  Birds, 
the  cartilage  that  unites  the  rib  to  the  sternum  is  osseous, 
giving  solidity  to  the  chest.  In  some  Reptiles,  as  lizards, 
crocodiles,  and  other  reptiles  formed  in  the  same  way,  the 
ribs  are  more  numerous  than  in  mammals  and  birds,  and 
protect  the  abdomen  as  well  as  the  chest.  In  the  turtle,  the 
ribs  are  expanded,  forming  the  dorsal  part  of  its  shell,  or  the 
roof  of  its  portable  dwelling-house.  In  serpents,  the  lower 
or  anterior  extremities  of  the  ribs  have  no  cartilage :  they 
aid  in  progressive  movement,  or  crawling,  as,  under  the  skin, 
their  ends  can  be  placed  on  the  ground  like  feet.  In  some 
Fishes,  the  ribs  are  wanting ;  in  others,  they  are  very  com- 
plete and  surround  the  trunk ;  in  still  others,  they  are  con- 
nected with  a  chain  of  bones  representing  the  sternum. 


FIG.  58. 


FIG.  58.  THE  SKELETON  OF  A  HADDOCK. 

160.  The  HUMERUS  is  usually  a  long,  hollow  bone,  with  a 
rounded  head  at  the  upper  extremity,  but  in  animals  that 
swim  or  burrow,  it  is  short  and  flattened  at  the  ends  for  the 
attachment  of  muscles,  thus  enabling  the  fore-limbs  to  be 
used  with  much  force.     In  Birds,  the  humerus  is  larger  than 
the  femur,  contrary  to  the  relative  proportion  in  man. 

161.  The  RADIUS  and  ULNA  are  present  in  most  Mammals, 
but  they  are  incapable  of  moving  upon  each  other.    In  Birds, 
they  are  longer  in  proportion  than  in  Mammals,  especially  in 
birds  of  flight. 


72  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

162.  The  CARPUS  of  Mammals  is  made  up  of  two  rows,  but 
the  number  of  bones  varies  from  five  to  eleven.     In  Birds,  it 
is  represented  by  two  short  bones.    The  METACARPUS  usually 
consists  of  five  elongated  bones,  but,  in  the  horse,  only  one 
bone  with  two  rudimentary  ones  are  found.     Most  mammals 
have  five  fingers,  of  which  the  thumb   is  generally  rudi- 
mentary.   In  some  Birds,  the  thumb  is  entirely  wanting,  also 
the  little  finger.     The  middle  finger  is  longest,  consisting  of 
two  and  even  three  bones. 

163.  The    POSTERIOR  EXTREMITIES  of  quadrupeds   are 
usually   less    modified    than    the    anterior.      In   Birds,   the 
Femur  is  short ;  the  Tibia  is  the  chief  or  longest  bone  of  the 
hind  limb ;  the  Fibula  is  a  small  bone  united  at  various  dis- 
tances down  the  tibia  in  different  birds.     A  single  bone  re- 
presents the  Tarsus  and  Metatarsus ;  this  supports  or  carries 
the  toes,  which  in  birds  never  exceed  four  in  number.     In 
some  Reptiles,  as  the  tortoise,  lizard  and  others,  the  anterior 
and  posterior  limbs  are  composed  of  bones  which,  in  number, 
form,  position  and  functions,  much  resemble  the  correspond- 
ing ones  in  mammals  and  birds:   in  the  serpent  tribe,  the 
limbs  are   wanting.      In   Fishes  the  extremities   are  rudi- 
mentary, being  represented  by  fins. 

Suggestion. — The  osteology  of  the  three  lower  sub-kingdoms 
o'f  animals  is  replete  with  interest  and  instruction,  but  the 
necessarily  limited  space  of  this  elementary  school-book  en- 
tirely precludes  their  consideration :  allow  us  to  advise  all 
who  can  command  the  leisure,  to  extend  this  study  to  the 
beautiful  and  wonderful  works  of  creation  as  seen  in  these 
parts  of  the  garden  of  the  Lord. 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE  MUSCLES. 

\  13.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  MUSCLES. — Law  of  Muscular  Contraction.— 
Consequent  Forms  of  Muscles.  Modes  of  Attachment  of  Muscles. — 
Number  and  General  Arrangement.  Muscles  of  the  Head  and  Neck. — 
Of  the  Upper  Extremities.— Of  the  Trunk.— Of  the  Lower  Extremities. 

164.  THE  CHARACTERISTIC  PROPERTY  of  muscles  is  con- 
tractility, and  the  law  is,  that  they  shall  contract  toward  the 
centre.  To  accomplish  this,  there  must  be  diversity  of  form, 
adapting  them  to  different  positions ;  hence,  muscular  fibres 
are  longitudinal,  terminating  at  each  extremity  in  a  tendon, 
forming  a  spindle-shaped  or  fusiform  muscle;  disposed  like 
the  rays  of  a  fan,  converging  to  a  tendinous  point,  a  radiate 
muscle;  converging  to  one  side  of  a  tendon  running  the  whole 
length  of  a  muscle,  as  one  side  of  the  plume  of  a  feather  to 
its  shaft,  a  penniform  muscle;  converging  to  both  sides  of  the 
tendon  like  an  entire  feather,  a  bi-penniform  muscle;  or  run- 
ning in  a  circular  direction,  an  orbicular,  or  sphincter  muscle. 

FIG.  59. 


12  34 

FIG.  59.  1,  A  REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  DIRECTION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  FIBRES 
in  a  fusiform  or  spindle-shaped  muscle.  2,  In  a  radiated  muscle.  3,  In  a  penniform 
muscle.  4,  In  a  bi-penniforin  muscle,  t,  t,  The  tendons  of  a  muscle. 

7  D  73 


74  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

165.  Muscles  are  usually  attached  by  both  their  extremities 
to  the  bones,  either  directly,  or  indirectly  by  means  of  the 
inelastic  but  flexible  tendons,  which  may  be  cord-like  (either 
round  or  flattened)  or  flat  and  broad,  supporting  the  organs 
which  they  surround,  and  named  Aponeuroses,  or  Fascice. 
Sometimes  the  muscle  is  attached  to  bone  by  one  extremity 
only,  the  other  being  fixed  to  the  skin  or  other  soft  part,  as 
certain  of  the  muscles  of  the  face:  sometimes  there  is  no 
connection  with  bone,  as  in  the  orbicular  muscle  of  the 
mouth.  When  a  muscle  is  attached  to  bone  by  one  extremity 
only,  that  attachment  is  called  its  origin,  the  other  being 
termed  its  insertion;  when  attached  at  both  ends  to  the  bones, 
the  attachment  nearer  the  centre  of  the  body,  and  which  is 
usually  the  more  fixed  point,  is  called  the  origin,  while  that 
more  distant  and  movable  is  named  the  insertion.  Muscles 
may  have  one,  two,  three,  or  many  points  of  origin,  and  some 
muscles  have  more  than  one  point  of  insertion. 

FIG.  60. 


Fio.  60.  A  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  THE  NECK.— The  separate  muscles,  as  they  are 
arranged  in  layers,  with  their  investing  fascise,  are  well  represented.  12,  The  trachea. 
13,  The  oesophagus.  14,  Carotid  artery  and  jugular  vein.  28,  One  of  the  bones  of  the 
spinal  column.  (The  figures  in  the  white  spaces  represent  fascia ;  other  figures,  muscles ; 
as  the  system  is  symmetrical,  figures  are  placed  only  on  one  side.) 

166.  The  NUMBER  of  muscles  in  the  human  body  is  more 


THE   MUSCLES.  75 

than  five  hundred,  In  general,  they  form  about  the  skeleton 
two  layers,  distinguished  as  superficial,  and  deep-seated  muscles ; 
yet  in  some  parts  there  are  three,  four,  five,  and  even  six 
layers. 

167.  With  the  exception  of  twelve  single  muscles,  they  are 
arranged  in  pairs.     Each  muscle  has  its  antagonist;  when 
one  contracts,  the  other  relaxes.     The  muscles  passing  over 
the  back  of  a  joint  are  usually  called  JExtensors,  because  they 
serve  to  extend  the  part  beyond  the  joint;  while  those  lying 
in  front  of  the  joint  are,  for  the  opposite  reason,  called 
Flexors. 

Examples. — 1st,  Clasp  the  arm  midway  between  the  shoul- 
der and  elbow,  with  the  thumb  and  fingers  of  the  opposite 
hand ;  when  the  arm  is  bent,  the  inside  muscle  is  hard  and 
prominent,  and  the  tendon  near  the  elbow,  rigid,  while  that 
upon  the  opposite  side  is  relaxed :  straighten  the  arm,  and 
the  outside  muscle  swells  and  becomes  firm,  while  the  inside 
muscle  and  its  tendon  are  relaxed. 

2d,  Clasp  the  fore-arm  about  three  inches  below  the  elbow, 
then  open  and  shut  the  fingers  rapidly,  and  the  alternate 
contraction  and  relaxation  of  the  muscles  on  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  arm  are  felt,  the  movements  corresponding  to 
those  of  the  fingers:  when  the  fingers  bend,  the  inside 
muscles  contract,  and  the  outside  ones  relax ;  when  the 
fingers  open,  the  inside  muscles  relax,  and  the  outside  con- 
tract. This  action  of  antagonist  muscles  may  be  felt  in  all 
the  different  movements  of  the  limbs. 

MUSCLES  OP  THE  HEAD  AND  NECK. 

168.  The  OCCIPITO-FRONTALIS  elevates  the  eyebrows. 
The  ORBICULARIS  PALPEBRARUM  closes  the  eyelids,  and, 

by  pressing  back  the  ball  of  the  eye,  it  also  compresses  the 
lachrymal  gland  and  causes  a  flow  of  tears. 

The  ORBICULARIS  ORIS  closes  the  mouth,  and  enables  the 
lips  to  embrace  any  substance  placed  between  them.  It  re- 
ceives into  its  periphery  the  fibres  of  the  surrounding  muscles, 
which  meet  here  as  in  a  common  centre.  It  enters  largely 


76  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


FIG.  61 


THE   MUSCLES.  77 

into  the  diversified  expressions  of  the  countenance,  and  in  no 
one  respect  exhibits  more  varied  adaptations  than  in  the 
performance  on  wind  instruments. 

The  MASSETER  and  TEMPORAL  give  motion  to  the  lower 
jaw. 

The  STERNO-CLEIDO-MASTOID,  when  both  sides  contract, 
draws  the  head  forward  or  elevates  the  sternum. 

MUSCLES  OF  THE  ANTERIOR  PART  OF  THE  TRUNK. 

169.  The  PECTORALIS  MAJOR  draws  the  arm  by  the  side, 
and  across  the  chest,  and  also  draws  the  scapula  forward. 

The  SERRATUS  MAGNUS  elevates  the  ribs  in  inspiration. 

The  OBLIQUUS  EXTERNUS  and  RECTUS  ABDOMINALIS 
exert  an  equable  pressure  upon  the  organs  contained  in  the 
abdominal  cavity ;  when  acting  together  they  bend  the  body 
forward  or  elevate  the  hips ;  they  also  depress  the  ribs  in 
respiration.  When  the  muscles  of  but  one  side  act,  the  body 
is  twisted  to  that  side. 

MUSCLES   OF   THE   POSTERIOR   PART   OF   THE   TRUNK. 

170.  The  TRAPEZIUS,  RHOMBOIDEUS  MAJOR  and  MINOR 
draw  the  scapula  back  toward  the  spine:    the  two  latter 
draw  the  scapula  upward   toward  the   head,  and  slightly 
backward:   the  former  draws  the  head   back  and  elevates 
the  chin. 

The  LATISSIMUS  DORSI  draws  the  arm  by  the  side  and 
backward. 

The  SERRATUS  POSTICUS  INFERIOR  depresses  the  ribs  in 
expiration. 

MUSCLES   OF   THE   UPPER   EXTREMITIES. 

171.  The  DELTOID  raises  the  arm  from  the  side  of  the 
body  to  a  horizontal  position. 

The  BICEPS  flexes  the  fore-arm  on  the  arm,  as  in  preparing 
for  striking  a  blow. 

The  TRICEPS  extends  the  fore-arm  on  the  arm ;  it  lies  on 
the  back  of  the  humerus  and  is  used  in  striking  a  blow. 


78 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

FIG.  62. 


FIG.  62.  THE  DORSAL  MUSCLES.— The  first,  second,  and  part  of  the  third  layer  of  muscles 
-of  the  back.  The  first  layer  is  shown  on  the  right,  and  the  second  on  the  left  side. 
1,  The  trapezius  muscle.  4,  The  latissimus  dorsi  muscle.  5,  The  deltoid  muscle.  7,  8,  The 
glutens  medius  muscle.  9,  The  glutens  maximus  muscle.  11,  12,  The  rhomboideus 
major  and  minor  muscles.  16,  The  serratus  posticus  inferior  muscle.  22,  The  serratus 
magnus  muscle. 

The  FLEXOR  CARPI  RADIALIS  passes  under  the  annular 
ligament  and  bends  the  hand  on  the  wrist. 

The  FLEXOR  CARPI  ULNARIS  bends  the  hand  in  the 
direction  of  the  ulna. 

The  FLEXOR  DIGITORUM  bends  the  fingers. 

The  EXTENSOR  DIGITORUM  extends  the  fingers. 

The  EXTENSOR  CARPI  RADIALIS  extends  the  wrist  on  the 
fore-arm. 


THE   MUSCLES.  79 

MUSCLES   OF   THE   LOWER   EXTREMITIES. 

172.  The  GLUTEI  give  power  of  retaining  the  erect  posi- 
tion. 

The  SARTORIUS  bends  the  lower  extremities  into  the  posi- 
tion assumed  by  the  tailor  at  his  work. 

The  RECTUS  FEMORIS,  VASTUS  EXTERNUS,  and  VASTUS 
INTERNUS  extend  the  leg  on  the  thigh. 

The  TRICEPS  ABDUCTOR  FEMORIS  bends  the  thigh  on  the 
pelvis,  rotates  it  outwardly  and  acts  powerfully  in  bending 
the  limbs  inward. 

The  BICEPS  FEMORIS  forms  the  outer  hamstring,  assists  in 
turning  the  leg  outward,  and  also  flexes  it  upon  the  thigh. 

The  EXTENSOR  DIGITORIUM  splits  into  four  tendons  which 
pass  under  the  annular  ligament,  and  extend  the  four  lesser 
toes  and  flex  the  foot. 

The  PERONEUS  LONGUS  extends  the  foot  and  inclines  the 
sole  obliquely  outward. 

The  GASTROCHNEMIUS  EXTERNUS  raises  the  body  in 
walking,  and  extends  the  foot  on  the  leg. 

The  TENDO-ACHILLES  (heel-cord)  is  formed  by  the  con- 
joined tendons  of  the  gastrochnemius  externus  and  internus 
(and  plantaris).  It  lies  directly  beneath  the  fascia  and  in- 
teguments. 

\  14.  HISTOLOGY  OP  THE  MUSCLES. — Analysis  of  a  Muscle.  Sheaths 
of  Muscles. —  Voluntary  or  Striated,  and  Involuntary  or  Non-Striated 
Muscle.  Exciting  Agents  of  Muscular  Contractility.  Tendons,  Blood- 
Vessels  and  Nerves. 

173.  A  MUSCLE  is  separable  into  bundles  of  fibres  called 
Fasciculi;    each   bundle   or   fasciculus,    into    smaller   fibres 
(smaller  fasciculi) ;  each  of  the  smaller  fibres,  into  a  multi- 
tude of  filaments,  or  fibrillce  (fibrils)  ;  and  each  filament,  or 
fibrilla,  into  cells  arranged  in  a  linear  series.    Hence,  a  single 
muscle  is  composed  of  some  millions  of  these  fibrillse  com- 
bined  together,   having   the   same   point  of  attachment  or 
origin^  and  concentrating  in  a  tendon  which  is  fixed  to  a 
movable  part,  or  the  point  of  insertion. 


80  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

174.  Each  muscle  is  invested  by  a  membranous  covering 
of  areolar  tissue,  named  the  Perimys'ium;  from  this,  thin  par- 
titions pass  inward  between  the  large  and  small  fasciculi,  so 
that,  were  it  possible  to  remove  the  muscular  substance,  there 
would  remain  a  delicate  areolar  network  of  the  exact  shape 
of  the  muscle  and  its  parts.  Each  elementary  fibre  or  fascic- 
ulus is  enclosed  in  a  very  thin,  transparent,  structureless 
sheath,  called  Myolem'ma;  this  sheath  is  entirely  distinct  from 
that  of  the  areolar  tissue ;  it  isolates  each  ultimate  fasciculus 
and  probably  gives  off  a  sheath  to  each  fibril. 


d 

FIG.  63  (Lady).  DEVELOPMENT  OF  STRIATED  MUSCULAR  FIBRE,  FROM  CELLS.— a,  Simple 
cell.  6,  A  pair  of  cells  fused  together,  c,  Three  cells  fused,  and  their  contents  as- 
suming the  striated  character,  d,  A  muscular  fibre,  exhibiting  its  original  composi- 
tion of  cells. 


175.  Muscles  are  of  two  classes — Striated  and  Non-Striated; 
the  former  are  also  called  Voluntary,  being,  in  their  normal 
action,  under  the  control  of  the  will ;  the  latter,  Involuntary, 
acting  independently  of  the  will,  as  the  heart,  the  stomach 
and  the  intestines.     The  Myolemma,  or  sheath,  so  distinct  in 
the  striated  or  voluntary  muscle,  cannot  be  shown  to  exist  in 
the  involuntary  or  non-striated  muscle.     The  heart  seems  to 
be  a  connecting  link  between  the  two  classes,  as  it  is  involun- 
tary in  action,  yet  composed  of  striated  muscle ;  the  sheath, 
however,  is  wanting. 

176.  The  "  Vis  Musculosa,"  or  contractility  of  the  muscle, 
is  excited  on  the  application  of  certain  stimuli ;  these  may 
be  Meehanical,  as  the  touch  of  a  sharp  instrument ;   Chemical, 
as  acids  and  alkalies;   Electrical,  as  in  shocks;  and  Vital, 
originating  in,  or  acting  through,  the  nervous  system :  it  is 
by  means  of  the  latter  that  muscular  fibre  is  most  frequently 
called  into  action. 


THE   MUSCLES.  81 

177.  TENDONS  are  composed  of  the  inelastic,  white-fibrous 
tissue,  and  possess  great  strength.     The  muscular  fibres  do 
not  cease  immediately,  but  intertwine  with  those  of  the  ten- 
dons, and  these  with  those  of  the  bone.     The  tendinous  and 
muscular  fibres  are  generally  parallel ;   thus  being  straight 
in  the  sartorius,  and  oblique  in  the  penniform  muscles.     In 
passing  over  bones  or  other  hard  parts,  they  are  protected  by 
synovial  bursse.     In  common  with  the  muscle  to  which  it  be- 
longs, each  tendon  has  an  envelope  of  very  condensed  areolar 
tissue  continuous  with  that  of  the  muscle :  this  sheath  gene- 
rally forms  a  semi-cylindrical  canal,  completed  on  the  oppo- 
site side  by  the  bone,  so  that  the  tendon  itself  slides  into  a 
canal  partly  bony  and  partly  fibrous.     This  canal  is  lined 
with  the  synovial  membrane. 

178.  The  BLOOD-VESSELS  do  not  enter  the  proper  mus- 
cular substance,  but  everywhere  abound  in  the  areolar  tissue 
by  which  the  fibres   are  enveloped;    hence  the  nutriment 
necessary  for  the  growth  and  repair  of  muscular  tissue  must 
be  absorbed  through  the  Myolemma. 

179.  The  NERVES  seem  to  occupy  the  same  position  as  the 
blood-vessels,  in  relation  to  the  primitive  fibres,  and  therefore 
must  also  exert  their  influence  through  the  Myolemma.    The 
nerves  of  the  voluntary  muscles  are  abundant,  and  chiefly  of 
the  motor  class,  or  those  which  preside  over  motion,  having 
nothing  to  do   with   sensation,  and  hence   acting  from  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord  to  the  muscles;  while  the  nerves  of 
the  involuntary  muscles  are  few,  and  of  the  sensory  class, 
or  those  wrhich  preside  over  sensation,  having  nothing  to  do 
with  motion,  hence  conveying  impressions  to  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord. 

§  15.  THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  MUSCLES.— Chemical  Composition  of 
Muscle.  Chemical  Changes  attending  Muscular  Action.  The  Mus- 
cular Current. 

180.  The  chemical  composition  of  muscular  tissue  cannot 
be  precisely  known,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  isolating  the 
fibres  from  the  areolar  tissue,  blood-vessels  and  nerves  blended 

D* 


82  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

with  them.  We  give  the  analysis  of  Berzelius,  by  which  it 
appears  that  less  than  twenty-three  per  cent,  of  ordinary 
meat  is  solid  matter : 

Proper  muscular  substance 15.80 

Gelatin  (firm  areolar  tissue) 1.90 

Albumen  and  hsernatin 2.20 

Phosphate  of  lime  with  albumen 08 

Alcoholic  extracts  with  salts  (lactates) 1.80 

Watery  extracts  with  salts 1.05 

Water  and  loss 77.17 

100.00 
Inosit,  or  Muscle  Sugar,  exists  in  the  juice  of  flesh. 

181.  The  proper  muscular  substance  differs  from  simple 
fibrous  tissue  in  not  being  resolved  into  gelatin  by  boiling. 
It  contains  a  peculiar   principle  called  os'mazome;   this   is 
colored,  soluble  in  alcohol,  and  gives  to  broth  its  charac- 
teristic taste  and  smell. 

182.  Muscular  action  is  accompanied  by  chemical  changes 
due  to  the  oxidation  of  muscular  tissue.     Quiescent  muscle  is 
neutral  (neither  acid  nor  alkaline)  in  chemical  character;  but 
muscle  after  repeated  contractions  is  acid.     Heat  is  evolved, 
both  by  chemical  action  and  increased  capillary  activity,  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  exercise  performed.     The  elec- 
trical current  known  as  the  "  muscular  current"  is  probably 
a  result  of  chemical  action.     In  the  entire  muscle,  its  path 
lies  along  the  outside  toward  the  tendons.     The  direction  of 
the  total  current  of  the  body  is  from  the  head  downward. 

Observation. — In  friction,  or  rubbing  the  body  with  the 
hand,  the  direction  of  the  current  should  be  followed,  other- 
wise irritation  is  produced  rather  than  the  soothing  influence 
desired.  This  direction  is  of  special  importance  to  nurses 
and  watchers  in  caring  for  the  sick,  particularly  nervous 
patients;  the  effect  of  friction  is  sometimes  improved  by 
moistening  the  inside  of  the  hand. 


THE   MUSCLES.  83 

g  16.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  MUSCLES. — Relative  Uses  of  the  Bones  and 
Muscles.  Important  Functions  of  the  Muscles.  Relation  of  the  Will 
and  the  Muscular  Sense  to  Muscular  Action.  The  Muscular  Sense  as 
a  Source  of  Enjoyment.  Importance  of  Involuntary  Movements. — Of 
such  Movements  being  sometimes  Voluntary.  Uses  of  Tendons.  The 
Mechanical  Powers  as  exhibited  in  Muscular  Action.  —  Levers. — 
Pulley.  Oblique  Action  of  the  Muscles.  Deep-Seated  Muscles. 
Minute  Muscles.  . 

183.  To   give   a   clear  idea  of  the   relative   uses  of  the 
Muscles  and  Bones,  we  quote  the  comparison  of  another: 
"  The  Bones  are  to  the  body,  what  the  masts  and  spars  are 
to  the  ship ;  they  give  support  and  the  power  of  resistance : 
the  Muscles  are  to  the  bones,  what  ropes  are  to  the  masts 
and  spars." 

184.  The  USES  OF  THE  MUSCLES  are  manifold — they  give 
the  beautiful  form  and  symmetry  of  the  exterior  of  the  body ; 
enclose  the  cavities,  and  form  a  firm,  defensive,  but  yielding 
wall  in  the  trunk  ;  invest  and  move  the  bones  of  the  limbs ; 
and  give  to  some  of  the  joints  their  principal  protection.     By 
means  of  the  contractile  property,  and  various  mechanical 
contrivances  of  muscular  fibres,  the  heart  pulsates ;  the  blood 
circulates ;    respiration  is  carried   on ;    the   conduits  of  the 
glands  urge  on  their  fluids ;  and  mechanical  aid  is  afforded 
in  the  various  processes  of  preparing  nutriment  for  the  sys- 
tem.    We  are  indebted  to  the  same  for  our  power  of  locomo- 
tion ;  for  our  ability  to  engage  in  the  manifold  employments 
of  life ;  to  enjoy  its  pastimes ;  and  to  hold  communication 
with  our  fellow-men  by  speech,  gesture,  and  the  varied  ex- 
pressions of  the  human  countenance. 

185.  The  VOLUNTARY  MUSCLES  in  their  normal  condition, 
both  in  their  contraction  and  relaxation,  are  subject  to  the 
control  of  the  Will  and  the  guidance  of  the  Muscular  Sense; 
the  will  determines  an  act,  and  the  muscular  sense  enables  us 
to  judge  of  the  effort  necessary  to  its  performance.    And  here 
we  would  notice  that  the  motion  of  a  limb  implies  an  active 
state,  or  a  change  in  both  classes  of  muscles  (flexors  and  ex- 
tensors), the  one  to  contract,  the  other  to  relax;  and  the  will 


84  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

influences  both  classes :  the  relaxing  muscle  does  not  give  up 
all  effort,  but  is  subject  to  as  fine  a  sense  of  adjustment  in  its 
yielding  as  in  its  contraction. 

186.  By  the  aid  of  the  Muscular  Sense,  sometimes  with 
conscious  volition,  and  sometimes  without  it,  we  regulate  the 
force  employed  in  all  the  movements  of  the  body,  as  lifting 
weights ;   balancing   the   body   in   standing   or   locomotion ; 
moving  the  arms  in  prehensile  or  manipulating  acts;   and 
exercising  the  vocal  organs.     The  feats  of  the  rope-dancer 
and  trained  gymnast  are  largely  due  to  the  cultivation  of  this 
sense.     The  exercise  of  the  muscular  sense  is  a  source  of  posi- 
tive enjoyment.     The  person  who  walks  with  an  elastic  step, 
holding  the  body  easily  in  equilibrium,  experiences  a  sensible 
pleasure  unknown  to  him  who  moves  with  shuffling  gait  and 
apparent   distrust   of  the   integrity   of  his  muscles:   so   in 
dancing,   gymnastic   and  skating   exercises,  if  attention   is 
given  to  elegance  of  attitude  and  harmony  of  motion,  there  is 
experienced  a  pleasure  quite  distinct  from  that  gained  by 
the  quickened  activities,  and  which  is  attributable  to  the 
muscular  sense. 

187.  The   INVOLUNTARY    MUSCLES   perform  their  func- 
tions wholly  independent  of  the  will,  and  are  essential  to 
the  action  of  the  heart,  the  digestive  organs,  the  respira- 
tory apparatus,  and  various  ducts,  blood-vessels  and  lymph- 
atics.    The  Divine  Builder  has  wisely  ordered  that  these 
vital  operations  should  not  be  subject  to  the  control  of  the 
individual. 

188.  Again,  there  are  certain  operations  generally  entrusted 
to  the  involuntary  muscles  that  may  be  temporarily  controlled 
when  occasion  requires,  as  in  respiration :  were  these  move- 
ments never  under  the  control  of  the  will,  we  should  be  un- 
able to  use  to  any  advantage  the  vocal  apparatus,  either  in 
speech  or  singing,  and  were  we  compelled  to  breathe  at  per- 
fectly regular  intervals,  it  would  be  exceedingly  difficult  to 
attend  to  the  daily  duties  of  life. 

Observation. — In  rare  instances  the  action  of  the  heart  may 
be  suspended  for  a  short  time  at  will.    The  possibility  of  such 


THE   MUSCLES.  85 

control  would  be  fairly  inferred  from  the  presence  of  striated 
muscular  fibre,  as  before  described. 

189.  TENDONS  serve  to  convey  the  contractile  power  of 
muscles  to  the  bones ;  they  are,  in  themselves,  passive  organs 
possessing  no  contractility.  In  them  the  evidence  of  care 
and  skillful  arrangement  is  beautifully  exhibited.  Wherever 
muscular  action  is  wanted,  and  the  presence  of  muscle  would 
be  inconvenient  or  mar  the  harmony  of  proportion,  or  where 
great  strength  is  needed,  there  we  find  the  small,  dense,  con- 
ducting tendons :  An  example  is  seen  in  the  human  hand ; 
Suppose  the  large  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  to  extend  to  the 
hand,  it  would  not  only  be  destitute  of  beauty,  but  unfitted 
for  many  of  the  purposes  of  life.  But  the  gradual  blending 
toward  the  wrist  of  the  muscles  with  the  tendons ;  the  band 
clasping  them  firmly  at  the  wrist ;  the  slits  in  the  short  ten- 
dons of  the  second  joint  to  allow  the  long  tendons  to  pass 
through  to  the  bones  of  the  fingers,  afford  the  best  conceivable 
arrangement  for  compactness,  delicacy,  beauty  and  utility. 


FIG.  64. 


FIG.  64  (Leidy).  METACARPAL  AND  PHALANGEAL  BONES  OF  THB  FINGERS,  WITH  THEIR 
TENDONS  AND  LIGAMENTS.—!,  Metacarpal  bone.  2,  Tendon  of  the  superficial  flexor. 
3,  Tendon  of  the  deep  flexor,  passing  through  a  perforation  (*)  of  the  superficial  flexor. 

190.  In  the  action  of  the  muscles  upon  the  bones,  we  have 
examples  of  the  three  kinds  of  Levers  treated  of  in  mechanics. 
A  lever  is  a  rod  of  wood,  metal,  or  other  substance,  movable 
in  one  plane  about  a  supported  point  in  the  rod,  called  a 
fulcrum.   The  resistance  to  be  overcome,  is  called  the  weight ; 
and  the  force  used  in  overcoming  the  resistance,  is  called  the 
power.     The  three  kinds  of  lever  are  distinguished  from  each 
other,  by  the  relative   position  of  the  power,  weight  and 
fulcrum. 

191.  In  the  first  kind,  the  fulcrum  is  between  the  power 
s 


86  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

and  the  weight ;  as  in  scales,  scissors,  etc. ;  in  the  second,  the 
weight  is  between  the  power  and  the  fulcrum ;  as  is  seen  in 
moving  the  common  wheelbarrow,  or  a  door;  in  the  third, 
the  power  is  between  the  weight  and  the  fulcrum ;  as  in  using 
the  fire-tongs.  In  the  body,  the  bones  are  the  levers ;  the 
parts  attached,  the  weights ;  and  the  muscles,  the  powers. 
The  fulcra  are  the  joints,  or  extremity  of  the  limbs  in  contact 
with  the  ground,  or  other  resisting  substance. 

192.  The  first  kind  of  lever  is  illustrated  in  the  adjustment 
and  movement  of  the  skull  upon  the  first  vertebra  (91)  ;  the 
hinge-joint  is  the  fulcrum ;  the  excess  in  gravity  of  the  parts 
of  the  head  in  front  of  the  joint  over  the  parts  behind  it,  is 
the  weight ;  and  the  muscles  extending  from  the  spine  to  the 
cranium  are  the  power.     Of  the  same  kind  of  leverage,  are 
the  movements  of  the  vertebrse  on  each  other  from  above 
downward ;  of  the  lowest  lumbar  vertebra  on  the  sacrum ;  of 
the  pelvis  on  the  thigh-bone;   of  the  thigh  on  the  leg;  of 
the  leg  on  the  ankle ;  and  also  the  extension  of  most  of  the 
joints  of  the  upper  extremities — as  the  elbow  and  the  joints 
of  the  fingers. 

193.  The  second  kind  of  lever  is  illustrated  in  the  foot. 
When  resting  on  the  ground,  with  the  heel  raised,  the  ful- 
crum is  at  the  ball  of  the  great  toe ;  the  weight  is  the  body 
transmitted  through  the  large  bone  of  the  leg ;  and  the  power 
is  in  the  muscles  of  the  calf  of  the  leg  (Gastrocnemii)  acting 
through  the  tendon  of  Achilles  (Fig.  61).     The  depression 
of  the  lower  jaw,  when  the  mouth  is  opened  very  wide,  is 
also  an  example  of  the  second  class.     Where  great  weight  is 
to  be  raised  slowly  through  a  short  space,  we  find  the  second 
class  of  levers. 

194.  The  third  kind  of  lever  is  most  used  in  animal  me- 
chanics ;  as  in  raising  the  lower  jaw ;  in  raising  the  shoulder 
and  collar-bone,  and  in  the  flexion  of  all  the  joints  of  the 
limbs.     A  familiar  example  is  the  elbow.     The  fulcrum  is 
at  the  joint ;  the  weight  is  the  fore-arm  and  hand ;  and  the 
power  is  in  the  biceps  and  brachial  muscles.     This  kind  of 
lever  works  at  what  is  called  a  mechanical  disadvantage,  as 


THE  MUSCLES.  87 

the  distance  of  the  power  from  the  fulcrum  is  always  less 
than  that  of  the  weight;  and  the  shorter  the  power-arm 
(or  distance  of  the  power  from  the  fulcrum)  in  proportion 
to  the  weight-arm  (or  distance  of  the  weight  from  the  ful- 
crum), the  greater  must  the  power  be  to  overcome  a  given 
resistance ;  but  what  is  lost  in  power,  is  gained  in  velocity. 
In  mechanics,  one  of  two  things  is  aimed  at — either  to  raise 
a  great  weight  slowly  and  through  a  short  space,  or  to  move 
a  light  weight  quickly  through  a  long  space ;  the  latter  is 
most  frequently  needed  for  the  purposes  of  life,  hence,  we 
find  it  accomplished  by  the  use  of  levers  of  the  third  class. 

FIG.  65. 


2 

«  FIG.  65.  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  THIRD  KIND  OF  LEVER.—!,  The  bone  of  the  arm  above  the 
elbow.  2,  One  of  the  bones  below  the  elbow.  3,  The  muscle  that  bends  the  elbow. 
This  muscle  is  united,  by  a  tendon,  to  the  bone  below  the  elbow  (4) ;  at  the  other  ex- 
tremity, to  the  bone  above  the  elbow  (5).  6,  The  muscle  that  extends  the  elbow.  7,  Its 
attachment  to  the  point  of  the  elbow.  8,  A  weight  in  the  hand  to  be  raised.  The 
central  part  of  the  muscle  3  contracts,  and  its  two  ends  are  brought  nearer  together. 
The  bones  below  the  elbow  are  brought  to  the  lines  shown  by  9, 10, 11.  The  weight  is 
raised  in  the  direction  of  the  curved  line.  When  the  muscle  6  contracts,  the  muscle  3 
relaxes  and  the  fore-arm  is  extended. 


195.  There  is  a  loss  of  power,  and  hence  mechanical  dis- 
advantage, in  the  oblique  action  of  the  muscles,  since  a  force 
acting  perpendicularly  on  the  arm  of  a  lever,  operates  most 
advantageously.  It  is  important  to  notice,  however,  that  the 
tendons  of  insertion,  and  sometimes  also  those  of  origin,  are 
attached  to  the  special  eminences  of  bones  called  processes, 


88 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


in  which  case  the  muscles  gain  an  advantage,  for  their  force 
ultimately  operates  in  a  line  more  or  less  perpendicular  to 
the  osseous  surface,  instead  of  in  a  line  nearly  parallel  with 
it,  as  would  happen  if  there  were  no  elevations.  The  ex- 
tensors act  more  obliquely  than  the  flexors,  and  therefore 
require  an  additional  amount  of  fibres,  hence,  they  are  larger 
than  the  flexors,  in  the  ratio  of  eleven  to  five. 

196.  The  principle  of  the  pulley  is  also  used  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  muscles,  though  less  frequently  than  the  lever. 
The  annular  ligaments,  which  confine  the  tendons  at  the 
wrist,  and  at  the  ankle  (61),  act  as  pulleys.  A  marked 
example  is  seen  in  one  of  the  muscles  that  pull  down  the 
lower  jaw,  called  the  digastric  muscle;  this  has  one  extremity 
attached  to  the  inside  of  the  lower  part  of  the  chin-bone,  and 
the  other  to  the  back  of  the  ear ;  it  is  tendindus  in  its  middle 
portion,  which  passes  through  an  opening  in  a  short  muscle 
connecting  the  hyoid  bone,  just  above  the  larynx,  to  a  small 
process  under  the  ear ;  hence,  when  the  digastric  muscle  con- 
tracts, the  jaw  is  depressed.  Another  beautiful  example  is 
furnished  by  the  trochlear  muscle  of  the  eye  (Fig.  181). 


FIG.  66. 


FIG.  66.  PULLET  ARRANGEMENT  OF  A 
MUSCLE. — 1,  Digastric  muscle  attached 
to  the  mastoid  process  of  the  temporal 
bone  behind  the  ear.  2,  Its  attach- 
ment to  the  lower  jaw.  3,  Hyoid  bone. 
4,  The  pulley  arrangement  of  the  di- 
gastric and  stylo-hyoid  muscles. 


197.  We  have  noticed  only  the  larger  of  the  exterior  layer 
of  muscles.  The  limits  of  this  work  will  not  allow  a  full  view 
of  the  exquisite  beauty  beneath ;  the  layers  are  of  various 
sizes  and  forms,  and  crossing  each  other  in  every  direction, 
yet  the  millions  of  fibres  and  multiplied  millions  of  cells  per- 


THE   MUSCLES.  89 

form  their  assigned  work  in  perfect  harmony,  not  one  inter- 
fering with  the  action  of  another.  In  the  abdominal  muscles, 
one  layer  of  muscles  is  oblique  from  left  to  right  toward  the 
median  line;  another  crosses  this  diagonally  from  right  to 
left;  another  crosses  these  transversely;  and  still  another 
perpendicular  layer  overlies  all  the  others. 

198.  Infinite   mechanical   skill  is  still  more  wonderfully 
shown  in  the  nice  adjustment  and  accurate  movements  of  the 
minute  muscles,  as  those  of  the  tongue,  and   the  yet  finer 
muscles  of  the  eye  and  the  drum  of  the  ear,  too  small  to  be 
seen  by  the  naked  eye. 

199.  Everywhere  the  muscular  force  is  one  and  the  same, 
but  its  applications  are  innumerable;   the  instruments  are 
constructed  upon  the  same  plan,  but  infinitely  varied  in  form, 
size  and  arrangement,  yet  made  with  the  greatest  simplicity 
for  effecting  each  its  particular  purpose. 

"In  human  works,  though  labored  on  with  pain, 
A  thousand  movements  scarce  one  purpose  gain ; 
In  God's,  one  single  can  its  ends  produce, 
Yet  serves  to  second,  too,  some  other  use" 


$  17.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  MUSCLES. — Requirements  necessary  to  main" 
tain  a  Healthy  Condition  of  Muscle.  Importance  of  Freedom  from  Com- 
pression.— Of  Exercise.  Conditions  to  be  observed  in  Muscular  Exercise. 
Exercise  sometimes  Injurious.  Effect  of  Mental  Stimulus.  Regard 
necessary  to  the  Age  and  Health. — Position  of  the  Body. — Proper  Mus- 
cular Tension.  Education  of  the  Muscles. 

200.  Since  so  much  of  our  happiness  and  usefulness  in  life 
depends  upon  healthy  muscle,  it  is  of  great  importance  that 
we  seek  to  understand  the  laws  upon  which  their  normal 
action  depends.  The  first  and  great  essential  is,  that  the 
muscles  should  be  abundantly  supplied  with  pure  blood.  A  pure 
state  of  the  blood  requires  that  the  digestive  apparatus  should 
be  in  a  healthy  condition ;  that  the  vital  organs  should  have 
ample  volume ;  that  the  lungs  should  be  plentifully  supplied 
with  pure  air ;  that  the  skin  should  be  kept  warm  by  proper 

8* 


90  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

clothing,  and  clean  by  bathing,  and  that  it  should  be  acted 
upon  by  air  and  sunlight.  It  is  also  of  primary  importance 
that  there  be  free  circulation  of  the  blood,  which  may  be 
secured  by  freedom  from  compression,  and  by  regular  and 
judicious  exercise. 

201.  Freedom  from  compression  is  requisite  to  free  circula- 
tion, for,  even  a  slight  pressure  upon  the  delicate,  yielding 
blood-vessels  checks  the  flow,  thus  preventing  the  necessary 
deposit  of  materials  required  by  the  waste  of  the  system,  and 
also  the  removal  of  the  injurious  products  of  the  decomposing 
tissues.     Again,  pressure  stimulates  the  lymphatics  to  undue 
action,  thus  attenuating  the  muscles. 

A  fractured  limb  is  enfeebled,  not  only  by  inaction,  but  by 
the  necessary  pressure  of  the  dressing ;  it  recovers  its  size,  tone 
and  strength  only  by  judicious  and  persistent  exercise  after 
the  bandages  are  removed. 

The  pressure  of  tight  dresses,  under  the  name  of  a  "  neat 
fit,"  not  only  produces  deformity  in  the  general  figure,  but 
prevents  the  expansion  of  the  lungs,  and  stagnates  the  blood, 
thus  poisoning  the  whole  system. 

The  young  lady  who  is  "  horrified"  at  the  act  which  takes 
life  in  a  moment,  adopts  a  plan  no  less  suicidal.  She  is 
equally  certain  to  take  away  her  God-given  life.  And  if  the 
guilt  of  self-murder  admits  of  degrees,  shall  he  who  applies 
the  knife  to  his  throat,  or  the  rope  to  his  neck,  be  guilty  of  a 
greater  condemnation,  than  she  who  extends  the  act  through 
months,  or,  if  nature  endures,  through  years,  meanwhile 
poisoning  the  soul  as  well  as  the  body  ? 

202.  Free  circulation,  and,  consequently,  muscular  power,  is 
increased  by  proper  exercise,  and  decreased  by  inactivity.     It  is 
a  general  law  of  the  system,  that  the  action  and  power  of  an 
organ  are,  within  a  certain  limit,  commensurate  with  the  de- 
mand made  upon  them — a  law  which  holds  good  in  the  mus- 
cular apparatus.     When  the  muscles  are  exercised,  the  flow 
of  blood  in  the  arteries  and  veins  is  increased,  hence,  the 
muscular  fibre  increases  in  size,  and  acts  with  greater  force ; 
while,  on  the  contrary,  the  muscle  that  is  little  used  receives 


THE   MUSCLES.  91 

little  nutriment  from  the  sluggish  blood,  and  decreases  in  size 
and  power. 

Illustration. — The  muscles  of  the  blacksmith  increase  in 
size  and  become  firm  and  hard ;  those  of  the  student,  if  not 
used  in  gymnastics  or  otherwise,  decrease  in  size  and  become 
soft  and  less  firm. 

203.  Relaxation  must  follow  contraction,  or  rest  must  follow 
exercise.     Exercise  too  long  continued  produces  exhaustion, 
and  in  the  exercise  of  exhausted  muscle,  the  loss  of  material 
exceeds  the  deposit;   also  long-continued  tension  enfeebles, 
and  at  length  destroys  the  contractile  property. 

Illustration. — The  effect  of  over-work  may  be  seen  in  the 
attenuated  frames  of  over-tasked  domestic  animals,  as  the 
horse,  or  in  the  diminished  weight  of  the  farmer  after  the 
hurry  of  harvest-time.  The  effect  of  continued  tension  is 
seen  in  the  restlessness  of  children  at  school,  after  sitting  for 
a  time  in  one  position.  The  necessity  of  frequent  recesses  is 
founded  upon  the  organic  law,  that  relaxation  of  muscle 
must  follow  contraction.  The  younger  and  feebler  the  pupils, 
the  greater  is  this  necessity. 

204.  Change  of  employment  often  affords  the  required  rest, 
as  it  brings  into  action  a  new  set  of  muscles ;  hence,  the  per- 
son of  sedentary  occupation  is  rested  by  general  muscular 
exercise,  while  the  person  of  active  occupation  is  rested  by 
that  of  a  sedentary  character. 

Illustration. — The  needlewoman  exhausts  the  muscles  of 
the  back  and  arm ;  a  brisk  walk  or  some  active  household 
employment  affords  rest. 

205.  The  muscles  should  be  gradually  called  into  action ;  for 
while  in  action,  they  require  more  blood  and  nervous  fluid 
than  when  at  rest,  and  these  fluids  are  gradually  increased. 
In  an  alarm  of  fire,  never  start  "  on  the  run,"  but  "  make 
haste  slowly"  in  the  first  instance,  and  then  gradually  in- 
crease your  speed. 

Observation. — If  a  man  has  a  certain  amount  of  work  to 
perform  in  nine  hours,  his  muscles  having  been  in  a  state  of 
rest,  he  will  do  it  with  less  fatigue  by  performing  half  the 


92  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

work  in  the  first  five  hours,  and  the  remainder  in  four  hours. 
The  same  principle  applies  in  the  use  of  beasts  of  burden,  or 
in  driving  the  carriage-horse. 

206.  The  muscles  should  be  rested  gradually  after  vigorous 
exercise.     If  a  person  has  made  great  muscular  exertion,  in- 
stead of  sitting  down  immediately  to  rest,  he  should  continue 
to  exercise  moderately  for  a  short  time,  and  avoid  sudden 
cooling  in  a   current  of  air;    additional   clothing  is   often 
needed.     The  soreness  of  muscles  which  have  been  severely 
exercised,  is  often  prevented  by  bathing  and  thorough  rub- 
bing, followed  by  moderate  exercise. 

207.  Exercise  should  be  regular  and  frequent.     The  system 
needs  this  means  of  invigoration  as  regularly  as  it  needs  new 
supplies  of  food.     To  devote  a  few  days  to  the  proper  action 
of  the  muscles,  and  then  spend  a  day  inactively,  is  as  incor- 
rect as  to  take  a  proper  amount  of  food  for  a  time,  and  then 
to  withdraw  the  supply  for  a  season.    The  industrious  artisan 
and  the  studious  minister  suffer  as  surely  from  undue  physical 
inactivity,  as  the  indolent  man.     The  evil  consequences  of 
neglect  of  regular  exercise  steal  slowly  but  surely  upon  an 
individual ;  sooner  or  later  they  are  manifested  in  muscular 
weakness,  dyspepsia  and  nervous  irritability. 

208.  Every  part  of  the  muscular  system  should  have  its  ap- 
propriate share  of  exercise.     Farming  and  domestic  employ- 
ments are  superior  as  vocations,  in  respect  to  giving  all  the 
muscles  their  due  proportion  of  action.     Where  the  daily 
occupation  exercises  but  a  part  of  the  muscles,  it  should  be 
followed  by  some  employment  or  recreation  which  will  bring 
the  others  into  use.    Among  the  healthful  pastimes,  are  those 
of  quoits  and  ball-playing.     Students,  both  boys  and  girls, 
often  become  chronic  invalids  from  the  want  of  this  general 
exercise.     Every  institution,  having  no  arrangement  for  sys- 
tematic physical  exercise,  should  be  considered  as  wanting 
in  one  great  means  not  only  of  physical,  but  of  intellectual 
and  moral  development.     If  possible,  there  should  be  a  gym- 
nasium with  its  varied  appurtenances ;  if  not,  there  should, 
at  least,  be  a  room  where  light  gymnastics  may  be  practiced 


THE   MUSCLES.  93 

daily,  ana  this  should  not  prevent  further  exercise  in  the 
open  air.  Experience  has  proved  that  far  more  intellectual 
vigor  is  gained  when  this  practice  is  observed. 

209.  The  amount  of  exercise  should  be  adapted  to  the  age 
and  strength  of  the  individual.     In  youth,  a  portion  of  the 
vital,  or  nervous  energy  of  the  system,  is  expended  upon  the 
growth  of  the  organs  of  the  body,  consequently,  severe  labor 
or  exercise  is  injurious. 

Observation. — In  the  campaigns  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
his  army  was  frequently  recruited  by  mere  boys.  He  com- 
plained to  the  French  government,  because  he  was  not  sup- 
plied with  mature  men,  as  the  youths  could  not  endure  the 
exertions  of  forced  marches. 

210.  The  proper  time  for  exercise  should  be  observed.     As  a 
general  rule,  the  morning  is  a  better  time  for  exercise  than 
the  evening ;  the  powers  of  the  system  are  greatest  at  that 
time.     Severe  exercise  should  be  avoided  immediately  before 
or  after  a  meal ;  the  vigor  of  the  system  is  then  required  for 
the  digestive  functions.     The  same  rule  should  be  observed 
regarding  mental  toil,  as  the  powers  of  the  system  are  then 
concentrated  upon  the  brain. 

Observation. — When  an  organ  is  in  functional  action,  it 
attracts  fluids  (sanguineous  and  nervous)  from  other  organs 
of  the  system.  The  vital  energies  are  sufficient  for  this  one 
work ;  but  if  two  important  organs  are  called  into  intense 
activity,  injury  arises  to  both  and  also  to  the  general  system. 
Nature  can  sustain  in  vigorous  activity  but  one  function 
at  a  time. 

211.  The  mind  exerts  a  great  influence  upon  the  tone  and 
contractile  energy  of  the  muscles.     Muscular  exercise  will  be 
attended  with  much  less  fatigue,  when  the  muscles  act  under  a 
healthy  mental  stimulus.    This  we  see  illustrated  in  the  ordi- 
nary vocations  of  life ;  if  the  mind  has  some  incentive,  the 
tiresomeness  of  labor  or  exercise  is  greatly  diminished : 

"  He  chooses  best  whose  labor  entertains 
His  vacant  fancy  most ;  the  toil  you  hate 
Fatigues  you  soon,  and  scarce  improves  your  limbs." 


94  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

The  effect  of  the  mind  upon  the  muscles  is  seen  in  the  spirit- 
less aspect  of  many  of  our  boarding-school  processions,  when 
a  walk  is  taken  merely  for  exercise,  with  no  other  object  in 
view.  But,  present  to  the  mind  a  botanical  or  geological  ex- 
cursion, and  the  saunter  will  be  exchanged  for  the  elastic 
step,  the  inanimate  appearance  for  the  bright  eye  and  glow- 
ing cheek.  The  difference  is,  simply,  that  in  the  former  case, 
the  muscles  are  compelled  to  work  without  the  nervous  im- 
pulse, which,  in  the  latter  case,  is  in  full  and  harmonious 
operation.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  a  walk  simply  for 
exercise  is  not  beneficial ;  if  possible  it  should  be  taken  in 
combination  with  harmonious  mental  exhilaration;  if  not, 
let  the  position  be  erect  and  the  pace  so  brisk,  as  to  produce 
rapid  respiration  and  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  in  a  dress 
that  shall  not  interfere  with  free  motions  of  the  arms  and 
free  expansion  of  the  chest. 

212.  The  amount  of  exercise  should  be  adapted  to  the  health 
of  the  individual.     This  direction  is  of  essential  importance, 
for  what  gives  vigor  to  one,  may  bring  weakness  to  another. 
A  walk  which  would  invigorate  one  in  health,  will  quite  ex- 
haust a  feebler  person ;  hence,  the  measure  of  strength  must 
be  the  measure  of  exercise ;  but  a  careful  distinction  should 
be  made  between  simply  healthful  fatigue,  soon  removed  by 
subsequent  rest,  and  the  positive  exhaustion  which  really  en- 
feebles. 

213.  In  diseases  producing  great  muscular  exhaustion,  par- 
ticular care  and  discretion  are  necessary  regarding  exercise.    In 
scarlet  fever,  typhoid  diseases,  etc.,  the  muscular  debility  is 
very  great ;  and  any  muscular  exertion  that  exhausts,  such 
as  moving  the  patient  home  when  he  has  sickened  abroad, 
or  undue  exercise  during  convalescence,  is  almost  sure  to  re- 
sult injuriously,  if  not  fatally.    Exercise  should  be  moderate, 
made  pleasant,  and  followed  with  proper  intervals  of  rest, 
and  never  at  the  discretion  of  one  who  is  ignorant  of  the  pecu- 
liar state  of  the  system. 

214.  In  chronic  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs,  lungs  and 
nervous  system,  well-directed  and  persistent  exercise  of  the  muscles 


THE   MUSCLES.  95 

is  essential  to  recovery.  In  these  ailments,  the  exertion  of  all 
the  muscles  repeated  frequently,  is  attended  with  the  most 
compensatory  results.  Moderation  is  necessary  at  first,  but 
the  exercise  should  be  increased  in  intensity  and  duration. 
The  aversion  of  the  patient  to  exercise  is  often  very  great ; 
but  it  should,  nevertheless,  be  persistently  taken  in  the  same 
spirit  in  which  he  would  pei  form  any  other  part  of  the  life- 
work  entrusted  to  him.  Making  it  a  business  to  perform  the 
labor  necessary  to  recovery,  and  entering  into  it  with  the 
heart  and  the  will,  gives  the  healthy  tone  and  stimulus  so  im- 
portant in  securing  the  most  beneficial  results. 

Observation. — A  patient  who  had  suffered  long  from  a 
combination  of  chronic  ills  which  baffled  the  skill  of  several 
physicians,  in  extreme  weakness,  adopted  a  systematic  plan 
of  exercise,  commencing  with  but  two  or  three  steps  at  a 
time,  and  adding  a  step  or  two  each  day,  till  in  six  months' 
time  she  walked  regularly  three  miles  a  day. 

215.  The  muscles  require  an  erect  position  of  the  body  both 
in  standing  and  in  sitting.     A   person   can   stand   longer, 
walk  farther,  and  perform  more  labor  in  an  erect  position 
than  when  stooping,  since  fewer  muscles  are  then  in  a  state 
of  tension,  and,  consequently,  less  draught  is  made  on  the 
nervous  system.    While  stooping,  the  muscles  of  the  posterior 
part  of  the  spinal  column  are  kept  in  a  state  of  tension,  to 
prevent  the  body  from  falling  forward ;  while  in  the  erect 
position,  the  body  and  head  are  balanced  upon  the  bones  and 
cartilages  of  the  spinal  column.    In  stooping,  the  lower  limbs 
are  also  curved  at  the  knee,  causing  a  constant  tension  of 
their  muscles ;  again,  the  slight  oscillation  is  wanting,  which 
in  the  erect  position  gives  alternate  contraction  and  relaxa- 
tion of  the  muscles  of  the  back. 

216.  It  is  important  that  the  muscles  of  the  child  should 
receive  due  attention,  that  the  shoulders   may  be  thrown 
back,  and  the  chest  become  broad  and  full.     Even  when  an 
adult  has  contracted  the  habit  of  stooping,  and  has  become 
round-shouldered,  it  can  be  measurably,  and  generally  wholly 
corrected,  by  moderate  and  repeated  efforts  to  bring  the  shoul- 


96 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


ders  into  proper  position.  This  deformity  should  receive 
attention  in  our  schools.  It  may  be  remedied  as  well  by 
persistent  effort  on  the  part  of  a  kind  instructor,  as  under 
the  stern  military  drill-sergeant,  who  never  fails  to  secure 
the  erect  attitude  in  his  raw  recruits.  In  furnishing  school- 
rooms with  desks,  care  should  be  taken  that  they  be  of  suffi- 
cient height  to  allow  the  proper  attitude  when  pupils  are 
using  their  books  or  the  pen.  This  is  not  only  essential  to 
health,  but  to  beauty  and  symmetry  of  form. 


FIG.  67. 


FIG.  68. 


FIG.  67  REPRESENTS  THE  ERECT  POSITION  OF  THE  BODY.  1,  A  perpendicular  line  froa 
the  centre  of  the  feet  to  the  upper  point  of  the  spinal  column,  where  the  liead  rests. 
2,  2,  2,  Spinal  column  with  its  three  natural  curves.  The  head  and  body  are  so  balanced 
that  the  muscles  are  not  kept  in  a  state  of  tension. 

FIG.  68  REPRESENTS  THE  STOOPING  POSITION  OP  THE  BODY.  1,  A  perpendicular  line. 
2,  Unnatural  curved  spinal  column,  and  its  relative  position  to  the  perpendicular  line  (1). 
The  curved  position  of  the  body  and  lower  limbs  keeps  the  muscles  in  tension,  which 
exhausts  their  contractile  energy.  . 


THE   MUSCLES. 


97 


Observation. — A  simple  test  of  the  erect  position  is  to  stand 
with  the  back  against  the  wall  of  a  room,  with  the  heels, 
elbows  and  back  of  the  head  touching  the  wall.  The  effort 
required  to  do  this  will  show  the  amount  of  the  departure 
from  the  true  attitude. 


FIG.  69. 


FIG.  70. 


Fra.  69  REFAESENTS  AN  IMPROPER,  tut  not  an  unusual,  position  when  writing. 
FIG.  70  REPRESENTS  A  PROPER  position  when  writing. 

217.  A  slight  relaxation  of  the  muscles  tends  to  prevent  their 
exhaustion.  In  walking,  dancing,  and  most  of  the  mechanical 
employments,  the  fatigue  will  be  less,  and  the  movements 
more  graceful,  if  the  muscles  are  slightly  relaxed ;  the  same 
condition  diminishes  the  jar  of  cars  or  coaches.  In  jumping 
or  falling  from  a  carriage  or  any  height,  the  shock  will  be  in 
a  measure  obviated  *f  the  presence  of  mind  is  sufficient  to 
relax  the  muscles,  bend  the  limbs  at  the  ankle,  knee  and 
hips;  throw  the  head  and  body  slightly  forward,  and  fall 
upon  the  toes,  instead  of  the  heel. 

Observation. — With  the  lower  limbs  firm  and  the 
9  E 


rigid,  jump  a  few  inches  perpendicularly  to  the  floor,  and 
fall  upon  the  heels;  again,  slightly  bend  the  limbs,  jump  a 
few  inches  and  fall  upon  the  toes,  and  the  difference  in  the 
force  of  the  shock  will  be  readily  noticed. 

218.  The  muscles  require  to  be  educated  or  trained.  Fre- 
quent and  systematic  use  of  the  muscles  at  proper  intervals 
is  necessary  to  effective  action.  This  education  must  be  con- 
tinued till  not  only  each  muscle,  but  every  fibre  of  the  muscle, 
is  fully  under  the  control  of  the  will.  In  this  way,  persons 
become  skillful  in  every  employment.  The  power  of  giving 
different  intonations  in  reading,  speaking,  and  singing  ;  the 
rapid  movements  in  penmanship,  and  in  mechanical  and 
agricultural  employments,  depend,  in  a  great  measure,  upon 
the  education  of  the  muscles.  An  individual  with  trained 

• 

muscles  will  perform  a  given  amount  of  labor  with  less 
fatigue  and  waste  to  the  system  than  one  whose  muscles  are 
untrained. 

Observation.  —  It  is  exceedingly  important  that  correct 
movements  be  insisted  upon  at  the  commencement  of  any 
muscular  training,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to  change  a  move- 
ment which  has  been  long  practiced.  If  a  child  holds  his 
pen  improperly  during  his  early  lessons,  he  will  probably 
never  become  ah  easy  and  elegant  writer. 


§  18.  COMPARATIVE  MYOLOQY.  —  Compare  Muscles  of  other  Mammals 
with  those  of  Man.    Muscles  of  Birds—  Of  Reptiles—  Of  Fishes. 

219.  The  muscles  of  all  Mammals  in  their  general  plan, 
resemble  those  of  Man  ;  the  modifications  in  number,  form, 
position  and  relative  size,  being  only  such  as  adapt  them  to 
the  habits  and  necessities  of  the  particular  species.     The 
color  of  the  muscle  is  deepest  in  the  Carnivora  (flesh-eaters), 
and  palest  in  the  Rodentia  (gnawers). 

220.  The  muscular  system  of  Birds  is  remarkable  for  the 
distinctness  and  density  of  their  fasciculi,  for  the  deep-red 
color  of  those  employed  in  vigorous  action,  and  their  marked 
separation  from  the  tendons,  which  are  of  a  pearly-white 


THE   MUSCLES. 


99 


color  and  have  a  peculiar  tendency  to  ossification.  This  high 
development  results  from  the  rapid  circulation  of  warm, 
rich,  highly  oxygenated  blood  through  the  extent  of  the 
respiratory  system.  The  energy  of  the  muscular  contraction 
in  this  class  is  in  the  ratio  of  the  activity  of  the  vital  func- 
tions. As  in  Mammalia,  so  in  birds,  the  muscles  are  varied 
to  meet  the  habits,  wants  and  condition  of  the  several  species 

and  orders. 

FIG.  71. 


221.  The  muscles  of  the  air-breathing  Reptiles  are  always 
pale  in  color,  and  the  fibres  are  tenacious  of  their  contractility; 


100 


ANATOMY.   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


the  energy  of  their  contraction  in  some  instances  and  on 
some  occasions  is  great,  but  it  cannot  be  continuously  exer- 
cised, such  power  being  soon  exhausted.  The  form,  size  and 
relative  number  of  the  muscles  are  as  various  as  in  mammals 
and  birds. 


In  reptiles  the  muscular  system  of  the  trunk  reaches  its 
maximum  development  in  serpents,  and  its  minimum  de- 


THE    MUSCLES. 


101 


velopment  in  the  tortoise.  The  mandibular.  Development ;  is 
generally  large,  while  that  of  the  limbs  is/cpniparartiyely  small 
or  entirely  wanting.  >  •  >  ,  •  »»»,•.•' j  '.•.•• 


FIG.  73. 


FIG.  73.  MUSCLES  OP  THB  TORTOISE. — 1,  Digaetricus.  2,  3,  Deltoides.  4,  Serratus  Mag- 
nus. 5,  6,  Triceps  Brachii.  7,  Biceps  Brachii.  8,  Ulnaris  Internus.  9,  Flexores  Digi- 
torum.  10,  Sartorius.  11, 12,  Gastrocknemius.  13,  Triceps  Adductor. 

222.  In  Fishes  there  is  a  modification  of  the  active  motor 
organs,  and  a  marked  deviation  from  the  fundamental  ver- 
tebral type.  The  chief  masses  of  the  muscular  system  are 
disposed  on  each  side  of  the  trunk  in  a  series  of  vertical 
plates,  or  flakes,  corresponding  in  number  to  the  vertebrae. 
Each  lateral  flake  (myocomma)  is  attached  by  its  inner  bor- 
der to  the  osseous  and  fibrous  parts  of  the  corresponding  seg- 
ment of  the  skeleton  within  ;  by  its  outer  border,  to  the  skin  ; 
and  by  its  fore  and  hind  surfaces,  to  the  septum  between  it 

9* 


102 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


ami. -the  contiguous  -myocommas,  or  flakes.  The  gelatinous 
tissue  of  these  ,veu-ui  -is  -dissolved  by  boiling,  and  the  muscular 
segments/  &£'  elates,  arertfien  easily  separated,  as  we  find  in 
carving  fish  JOT  .&a-  table.  Each  flake  is  arranged  in  a  zig- 
zag manner.  The  muscular  tissue  of  fishes  is  usually  color- 
less, sometimes  it  is  opaline  or  yellowish,  but  it  is  white  when 
boiled. 

FIG.  74. 


Fio.  74.  MUSCLES  OP  THE  FISH.— a,  ft,  c,  The  zigzag  arrangement  of  the  luyocomraa. 


]   !  VISION  III. 

THE    NUTRITIVE    APPARATUS. 

223.  IN  the  mastication  and  deglutition  of  food;  in  its 
conversion  into  fluids ;  in  its  circulation  in  all  parts  of  the 
system  ;  in  its  assimilation  into  the  various  tissues  and  organs 
of  the  body ;  in  its  dis-assimilation,  and  in  the  excretion  of 
useless  matter ; — in  a  word,  in  the  building  up  and  repairing 
of  the  system,  from  the  earliest  period  of  embryo  life  to  the 
last  moment  of  earthly  existence,  certain  organs  are  used, 
which  together  may  be  termed  the  NUTRITIVE  APPARATUS: 
including  the  Digestive,  the  Absorptive,  the  Circulatory,  the 
Assimilatory  and  the  Respiratory  organs. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 

\  19.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. — Anatomy  of  the  Mouth. 
—The  Teeth.— The  Salivary  Glands.— The  Pharynx.— The  (Esophagus. 
—The  Stomach.— The  Intestines.— The  Liver.— The  Pancreas.— The 
Spleen. 

224.  The  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  include  the  Mouth,   Teeth, 
Salivary  Glands,  Palate,  Pharynx,  (Esophagus,  Stomach,  Intes- 
tines, Liver,  Pancreas  and  Spleen. 

225.  The  MOUTH  is  the  space  bounded  by  the  lips  in  front ; 
the  soft  palate  behind,  which  separates  it  from  the  pharynx  ; 
the  hard  palate  above,  enclosed  by  the  teeth  and  alveolar 
arch ;  and  the  floor  below,  upon  which  rests  the  tongue  (the 
floor  being  included  within  the  lower  teeth  and  alveolar 
arch). 

102 


104  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE. 


FIG.  75. 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS. 


105 


226.  The  TEETH  are  attached  to  the  upper  and  the  lower 
jaw-bone  by  means  of  bony  sockets  called  alve'olar  processes. 
The  attachment  is  strengthened  by  the  fibrous,  fleshy  struc- 
ture of  the  gums.  Each  tooth  has  two  parts — the  crown  and 
the  root:  the  crown  is  that  part  which  protrudes  from  the 
jaw-bone  and  gum,  and  is  covered  by  the  enamel ;  the  root, 
or  fang,  is  that  part  contained  in  the  socket  of  the  jaw ;  and 
the  slightly  constricted  portion  clasped  by  the  gums  is  the 
neck. 

FIG.  76. 


u  « 


y   my  <s 


*•  t  »  «• 


' 


FIG.  76  REPRESENTS  THE  ADULT  TEETH.— 1, 2,  The  cutting  teeth  (incisors).  3,  Eye-tooth 
(cuspid).  4,  5,  Small  grinders  (bi-cuspids).  6,  7,  8,  Grinders  (molars).  9,  9,  Neck  of  the 
tooth. 

Observation. — These  bony  processes  are  absorbed  after  the 
extraction  of  a  permanent  tooth,  leaving  the  jaw-bone  covered 
only  by  the  lining  membrane  of  the  gum.  This  gives  the 
narrow  jaw  and  retreating  lips  of  old  age.  A  piece  of  the 
alveolar  process  sometimes  clings  to  a  tooth  when  extracted  j 
and  the  dentist  has  the  credit  of  "  breaking  the  jaw." 

227.  The  first  set  of  teeth,  appearing  in  infancy,  is  called 
temporary,  or  the  milk-teeth.  They  are  twenty  in  number; 
ten  in  each  jaw.  Between  six  and  fourteen  years  of  age,  they 
are  replaced  by  the  second  set,  called  permanent  teeth,  num- 
bering thirty-two,  sixteen  in  each  jaw. 

E* 


106 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


The  four  front  teeth  in  each  jaw  are  called  Incisors  (cutting 
teeth).  They  are  convex  in  front,  concave  behind,  gently 
rounded  at  the  sides,  and  have  a  broad,  chisel-shaped  body, 
based  on  a  rounded  neck,  terminating  above  in  a  sharp  and 
slightly  serrated  cutting  edge.  The  next  tooth  on  each  side, 
the  Cuspid  (eye-tooth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  stomach-tooth  in 
the  lower)  is  round,  strong,  with  a  very  long,  tapering  root,  and 
the  body  terminating  in  a  point  having  on  each  side  a  partial 
serrature:  the  next  two,  Bi-cuspids  (small  grinders)  have  a 
rounded  body  terminating  on  its  grinding  edge  in  two  points, 
one  before,  the  other  behind,  with  a  rough  groove  between 
them :  the  next  two,  Molars  (grinders),  situated  behind  all 
the  other  teeth,  have  a  crown,  square  or  cuboid  in  form,  with 
four  points  on  the  triturating  surface  separated  by  channeled 
depressions ;  the  last  molar  is  the  dens  sapientice,  or  "  wisdom 
tooth,"  smaller  than  its  fellows,  late  in  its  development,  and 
early  in  its  decay. 


FIG.  77. 


FIG.  78. 


FIG.  77.  THE  MOUTH  AND  NECK  LAID  OPEN. — 1,  The  teeth.  3,  4,  upper  and  lower  jaws. 
5,  The  tongue.  7,  Parotid  gland.  8,  Sublingual  gland.  9,  Trachea  (wind-pipe).  10, 11, 
(Esophagus  (gullet).  12,  Spinal  column.  13,  Spinal  cord. 

FIG.  78.  A  SIDE  VIKW  OF  FACE. — 1,  2,  Trachea.  3,  (Esophagus.  7,  Submaxillary. 
8,  Parotid  gland.  9,  Duct  from  the  parotid  gland.  4,  4,  4,  5,  6,  Muscles. 

The  incisors,  cuspids  and  bi-cuspids  have  each  but  one 
root;  the  molars  of  the  upper  jaw  have  three  roots;  those 
of  the  lower  jaw,  two  roots. 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS.  107 

228.  The  SALIVARY  GLANDS  consist  of  three  pairs — the 
Parotid*  the  Submax' illary  and  the  Sublingual. 

The  PAROTID  GLAND,  the  largest,  is  situated  in  front  of 
the  external  ear,  and  behind  the  angle  of  the  jaw.  A  duct 
(Steno's)  from  this  gland  opens  into  the  mouth  opposite  the 
second  molar  tooth  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  SUBMAXILLARY 
GLAND  is  situated  within  the  lower  jaw,  anterior  to  its  angle. 
Its  excretory  duct  (Wharton's)  opens  into  the  mouth  by  the 
side  of  the  frce'num  ling'uce  (bridle  of  the  tongue).  The  SUB- 
LINGUAL  f  GLAND  is  elongated  and  flattened,  and  situated 
beneath  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  floor  of  the  mouth,  on 
each  side  of  the  frsenum  linguae,  by  the  side  of  which  are 
seven  or  eight  small  ducts  opening  into  the  mouth. 

Observation. — The  "mumps"  is  a  disease  of  the  parotid 
gland,  and  the  swelling  under  the  tongue,  called  the  "  frog," 
a  disease  of  the  sublingual  gland. 

229.  The  PHARYNX,  or  throat,  is  the  funnel-like  cavity 
about  four  inches  in  length,  extending  from  the  base  of  the 
skull  to  the  top  of  the  fifth  cervical  vertebra,  where  it  be- 
comes  continuous  with  the  oesophagus.     The  pharynx  has 
four  passages ;  one  leading  upward  and  forward  to  the  nose ; 
the  second,  forward  to  the  mouth ;  the  third,  downward  to 
the  trachea  and  the  lungs ;  and  the  fourth,  downward  and 
backward  to  the  stomach. 

230.  The  (ESOPHAGUS  is  a  large  membranous  tube,  ex- 
tending from  the  pharynx  to  the  stomach.     It  lies  behind 
the  trachea,  the  heart  and  the  lungs,  and  passes  through  the 
diaphragm. 

231.  The  STOMACH  is  a  somewhat  pear-shaped  dilatation 
of  the  alimentary  canal.     When  moderately  filled,  it  mea- 
sures twelve  inches  in  length,  by  four  inches  in  diameter.     It 
has  two  openings,  one  connected  with  the  oesophagus',  called 
the  car'diac  orifice ;  the  other  connected  with  the  upper  por- 
tion of  the  small  intestine,  called  the  pylor'ic  orifice. 

*  Gr.,  para,  near,  and  ous,  ear. 

t  Lat.,  sub,  under,  and  lingua,  the  tongue. 


108 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


232.  The  INTESTINES  are  divided  into  the  Small  and  the 
Large  intestines.  The  small  intestine  is  about  twenty-five 
feet  in  length,  and  divided  into  three  parts — the  Duode'num, 
the  Jeju'num  and  the  Il'eum. 


FIG.  79. 


FIG.  79  (Leidy).  THE  STOMACH  AND  INTESTINES. — 1,  Stomach.  2,  Duodenum.  3,  Small 
intestine.  4,  Termination  of  the  ileum.  5,  Ccecum.  6,  Vermiform  appendix.  7,  Ascend- 
ing colon.  8,  Transverse  colon.  9,  Descending  colon.  10,  Sigmoid  flexure  of  the  colon. 
11,  Rectum.  12,  Spleen. 

DUODENUM  signifies  twelve,  and  this  part  is  so  called  be- 
cause its  length  is  about  twelve  fingers'  breadth,  or  ten 
inches;  JEJUNUM  signifies  fasting,  the  food  passing  quickly 
through  this  portion,  leaving  it  empty ;  ILEUM,  tivisted,  is  so 
named  from  its  numerous  coils  or  convolutions. 

233.  The  large  intestine,  about  five  feet  in  length,  is  also 
divided  into  three  parts — the  Ccecum,  the  Colon  and  the 
Rectum:  The  CCECUM  is  so  called  from  its  forming  a  blind 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS.  109 

pouch  perforated  at  one  end  only ;  the  COLON,  because  the 
excrements  are  arrested,  for  a  considerable  time,  in  its  folds ; 
and  the  RECTUM,  from  its  straight  course. 

Attached  to  the  extremity  of  the  coecum  is  the  appendix 
vermiformis,  a  worm-shaped  tube,  about  four  inches  long,  and 
the  size  of  a  goose-quill.  Its  function  is  unknown.  The 
COLON  is  divided  into  three  parts — the  ascending,  the  trans- 
verse and  the  descending ;  the  lower  portion  of  the  descending 
colon  makes  a  double  curvature,  called  the  sigmoid  flexure. 
The  RECTUM  extends  from  the  sigmoid  flexure  to  the  terminus 
of  the  intestinal  canal,  a  distance  of  six  or  eight  inches. 

234.  The  LIVER  is  the  largest  glandular  organ  in  the  body, 
weighing  about  four  pounds.     It  is  situated  in  the  right  side 
below  the  diaphragm.     It  is  convex  above  and  slightly  con- 
cave below;  its  convex  surface  being  fitted  accurately  into 
the  concavity  of  the  diaphragm,  and  its  concave  surface  in 
contact  with  the  stomach,  duodenum,  colon  and  right  kidney. 
The  liver  is  surrounded  by  a  peritoneal  covering,  which  forms 
for  it  a  suspensory,  or  broad  ligament,  and  two  lateral  and 
triangular  ligaments.     It  has  two  principal  lobes,  the  right 
lobe  being  four  or  five  times  larger  than  the  left.     Oh  the 
under  side  of  the  liver  is  the  gall-bladder,  or  reservoir  for 
the  bile,  which  opens  by  the  common  biliary  duct  into  the 
duodenum. 

235.  The  PANCREAS*  is  a  long,  flattened  organ,  weighing 
three  or  four  ounces,  about  six  inches  in  length,  and  placed 
transversely  across  the  posterior  wall  of  the  abdomen,  behind 
the  stomach.     A  duct  from  this  organ  opens  into  the  duo- 
denum. 

236.  The  SPLEEN  (so  called  because  the  ancients  supposed 
it  to  be  the  seat  of  melancholy)  is  an  oblong,  flattened  organ 
situated   on   the   left  side  in  contact  with  the  diaphragm, 
stomach  and  pancreas.     It  is  of  a  dark-bluish  color,  has  no    _ 
outlet,  and  its  use  is  not  well  determined. 

*  Gr.,  pan,  all,  and  kreas,  flesh. 
10 


110  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

I  2O.  HISTOLOGY  OP  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.— Lining  Membrane 
of  the  Alimentary  Canal — Of  the  Mouth.  Histological  Composition  of 
the  Teeth— Of  the  Tongue— Of  the  Palates— Pharynx.  The  Three 
Coats  of  the  (Esophagus,  the  Stomach  and  the  Intestines — Their  Rela- 
tion to  each  other — Adaptation  to  their  several  Offices. 

237.  The    alimentary    canal    is   lined    through   its   entire 
length   by  the  mucous  membrane,  which,  with  its  little  re- 
cesses forming  tubes  or  sacs  called  glands,  is  composed  of 
three  layers — the  epithelium,  or  surface  layer,  the  basement 
membrane,  and  the  areolar-vascular  layer,  or  corium.     The 
epithelium  varies  in  different  parts,  both  in  the  number  of 
layers  and  in  the  form  of  its  cells. 

238.  The  cavity  of  the   MOUTH,  excepting  the  teeth,  is 
everywhere  covered  with  a  highly  vascular  mucous  mem- 
brane, having  a  squamous   epithelium,   beneath  which   are 
concealed   conical   papillae,  excepting  upon   the  gums  and 
upper  surface  of  the  tongue,  where  they  become  conspicuous 
as  organs  of  taste. 

The  TONGUE  is  a  muscular  organ,  composed  of  two  sym- 
metrical halves,  separated  by  a  median  fibrous  membrane. 
Its  muscles  are  named  extrinsic  and  intrinsic;  the  former, 
four  in  number  on  each  side,  pass  into  the  tongue  at  its  base 
and  under  surface,  attaching  it  to  the  neighboring  parts. 
The  intrinsic  are  named  the  superior  longitudinal,  the  inferior 
longitudinal,  and  the  transverse ;  the  first  extending  just  be- 
neath the  mucous  membrane,  from  the  apex,  through  the 
entire  length,  to  the  hyoid  bone,  having  some  of  its  fibres 
oblique,  and  some  branching ;  while  the  inferior  longitudinal 
extends  from  the  apex  to  the  base  of  the  tongue.  The  trans- 
verse muscles  which  give  the  principal  body  to  the  tongue, 
are  connected  with  the  median  septum  and  pass  outward, 
intersecting  at  the  margins  and  base  with  the  other  muscles. 
(From  this  variety  of  arrangement,  the  tongue  is  capable  of 
moving  in  all  directions.) 

The  PALATE,  or  roof  of  the  mouth,  comprises  two  parts, 
the  hard  and  the  soft  palate.  The  Hard  palate  is  deeply 
vaulted  and  lined  with  a  smooth  mucous  membrane,  except- 


THE   DIGESTIVE  OBGANS.  Ill 

ing  at  the  fore  part,  which  is  roughened  by  transverse  ridges. 
The  Soft  palate  is  composed  of  a  doubling  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  enclosing  a  muscular  layer,  together  with  several 
small  glands.  It  projects  as  a  freely  movable  partition, 
obliquely  downward  and  backward  from  the  hard  palate 
between  the  mouth  and  posterior  nasal  orifices. 

239.  The  TEETH  are  appendages  developed  in  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth,  and  not  parts  of  the  skeleton,  as  is 
sometimes  supposed.  The  tooth  consists  of  a  hard  portion 
hollowed  out  and  filled  with  a  soft  substance,  called  pulp. 
This  pulp  is  formed  of  areolar  tissue  supplied  with  vessels  and 
nerves,  which  enter  the  tooth  at  a  minute  opening  at  the  point 
of  the  fang.  It  is  the  remains  of  vascular  and  nervous  papillae 
upon  which  the  tooth  was  originally  formed  The  hard  sub- 
stance is  composed  of  ivory,  or  dentine,  enamel  and  cement. 
The  Dentine  forming  the  greater  part  of  the  tooth  consists 
of  microscopic  tubes  called  dental  tubuli.  These  tubuli  are 
filled  with  minute  processes  of  the  pulp,  affording  nutrition 
and  perhaps  giving  sensibility  to  the  dentine. 

FIG.  30. 


i!'iG.  80  (Ltidy).  VERTICAL  SKCTION  OF  A  MOLAR  TOOTH,  moderately  magnified.  1, 
Knamel,  the  lines  of  which  indicate  the  arrangement  of  its  columns.  2,  Dentine,  the 
lines  indicating  the  course  of  its  tubules.  3,  Thin  lamina  of  the  dentine  forming  the 
wall  of  the  pulp  cavity,  the  dots  indicating  the  orifices  of  the  dental  tubuli.  4, 
Cement. 


112          ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND  HYGIENE. 

The  crown  of  the  tooth  is  covered  with  Enamel,  the  hardest 
of  all  known  animal  textures,  containing  more  earthy  matter 
than  the  dentine,  chiefly  phosphate  of  lime.  The  enamel  is 
composed  entirely  of  hexagonal,  prismatic  fibres  or  rods 
arranged  closely  together  upon  the  dentine.  On  the  crown 
these  fibres  are  vertical;  on  the  sides,  they  become  first 
oblique,  then  horizontal. 

The  Cement  is  a  thin  layer  of  true  bone  covering  the  fang, 
thinnest  next  to  the  enamel,  and  thickest  along  the  grooves 
and  near  the  point.  Its  outer  surface  is  firmly  attached  to 
a  fibro-vascular  and  sensitive  membrane  analogous  to  the 
periosteum,  which  seems  to  fasten  the  teeth  in  the  socket  of 
the  jaw,  being  itself  united  to  the  periostea!  membrane  which 
lines  its  sockets. 

240.  The  PHARYNX  is  a  musculo-membranous  bag,  attached 
above  to  the  base  of  the  skull.     Its  walls  consist  chiefly  of 
three  pairs  of  constrictor  muscles,  supported  by  areolar  tissue, 
and  lined  by  mucous  membrane  which  is  continuous  with 
that  of  the  nasal  cavities,  Eustachian  tubes,  mouth,  larynx 
and  03sophagus,  with  all  of  which  the  pharynx  communi- 
cates.    The  portion  devoted  to  the  passage  of  air  has  its  epi- 
thelium columnar  and  ciliated,  while  that  devoted  exclusively 
to  the  passage  of  food  and  drinks  has  a  squamous  non-ciliated 
epithelium.     Many  mucous  glands  are  found  in  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  pharynx. 

241.  The  walls  of  the  (ESOPHAGUS  are  composed  of  three 
coats — muscular,  areolar  and  mucous.     The  Muscular  coat  has 
an  external  layer  of  longitudinal  fibres  and  an  internal  layer 
of  circular  fibres.     The  fibres  are  mostly  non-striated,  ex- 
cepting in  the  upper  part.     The  Areolar  coat  is  soft  and  dis- 
tensible, supporting  the   mucous   membrane,  which   lies  in 
folds,  so  that  no  opening  exists  when  the  oesophagus  is  not  in 
action.    Many  mucous  glands  are  found,  especially  at  the  ends. 

242.  The  STOMACH  is  the  dilated  portion  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  into  which  the  oesophagus  opens  from  above  by  the 
cardiac  orifice,  and  the  small  intestines  from  below  by  the 
pyloric  orifice.   It  is  a  membranous  bag,  consisting  of  mucous 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS. 


113 


membrane  within,  serous  membrane  without,  with  a  muscular 
and  areolar  layer  between.  The  muscular  coat  has  three 
layers  of  fibres  —  longitudinal,  circular  and  oblique.  The 
longitudinal  are  continuous  with  the  longitudinal  fibres  of 
the  oesophagus,  and  extend  divergingly  over  the  body  of 
the  stomach,  collecting  into  parallel  bundles  again  at  the 
intestinal  opening,  thus  continuing  into  the  intestines.  The 
circular  fibres  correspond  in  arrangement  with  those  of  the 
esophagus,  passing  in  this  way  around  the  stomach,  till  con- 
densed into  a  sphincter  muscle  at  the  pyloric  orifice,  which  it 
partly  closes.  The  oblique  muscles  are  continuous  with  the 
circular  fibres  of  the  oesophagus,  from  which  they  spread 
obliquely  for  a  short  distance  upon  the  anterior  and  posterior 
sides  of  the  stomach. 


FIG.  81. 


FIG.  82. 


FIG.  81  (Leidy).  SMALL  PORTION  OF  THE  Mucous  MEMBRANE  op  THE  STOMACH,  WITH 
THE  IMBEDDED  GASTRIC  GLANDS."  1,  The  glands.  2,  Orifices  of  the  glands.  3,  Epithelium 
of  the  mucous  membrane;  moderately  magnified. 

FIG.  82  (Leidy).  MAMMILLA  OK  TUB  Mucous  MEMBRANE  OF  THE  STOMACH,  moderately 
magnified,  exhibiting  the  orifices  of  the  gastric  glands. 

The  areolar  coat  is  united  to  the  muscular  by  loose  areolar 
tissue,  but  the  union  is  very  firm  between  it  and  the  mucous 
membrane  which  it  supports.  The  mucous  coat  has  numerous 
blood-vessels  and  lymphatics,  also  upright  tubular  glands, 
secreting  the  gastric  juice. 
10* 


114          ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

243.  The  INTESTINES  have  their  coats  and  muscular  fibres 
arranged  like  those  of  the  stomach.  The  areolar  coat,  with 
its  closely-adherent  mucous  membrane,  projects  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  small  intestines,  forming  valves  called  val'vulce 
conniven'tes.  These  vary  in  size,  some  being  two  inches  long, 
and  one-third  of  an  inch  wide  in  the  middle,  tapering  at  both 
ends;  others  are  smaller,  alternating  with  the  layer.  The 
intestinal  mucous  membrane  is  covered  internally  with  thread- 
like processes  of  the  membrane,  which  become  erect  when 
immersed  in  water,  presenting  a  velvety  appearance,  hence 
called  villi. 

FIG.  83. 


FIG.  83  (Leidy).  PORTION  OK  THK  M toots  MKMURANE  FROM  THE  ILECM,  moderately 
magnified,  exhibiting  the  villi  on  its  free  suiTmv,  and  between  them  the  orifices  of  the 
tubular  glands.  1,  Portion  of  an  agminated,  ur  clustered  gland.  2,  A  solitary  gland. 
3,  Fibrous  tissue. 

244.  The  LIVER  has  two  coats — the  external  serous  coat, 
formed  from  the  doubling  of  the  peritoneum  upon  it,  and  the 
internal  areolar  coat.  Its  proper  substance  is  composed  of  a 
multitude  of  compressed  polyhedral  masses,  not  larger  than  a 
small  pin's  head,  and  named  hepatic  lobules.  Each  lobule  has 
one  part  called  the  base,  which  rests  upon  a  hepatic  vein  (333), 
thence  called  the  sub-lobular  vein.  The  impress  of  the  poly- 
gonal base  may  be  seen  within  when  the  vein  is  opened. 
Running  longitudinally  down  the  middle  of  the  lobule  is  a 
vein  formed  by  six  or  eight  veinlets  coming  from  various 
parts  of  the  circumference.  This  mid-vein,  called  intra-lobu- 
lar,  unites  with  the  sub-lobular  vein  at  the  base  of  the  lobule. 
The  lobules  are  arranged  closely  side  by  side,  their  bases  aid- 
ing in  the  formation  of  the  membranous  canals,  called  the 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS.  115 

portal  canal,  in  which  the  hepatic  vein  lies  closely  adherent 
to  the  canal-walls.  This  arrangement  resembles  that  of  sessile 
leaves  upon  the  stem.  The  veinlets  of  the  intra-lobular  vein 
originate  in  a  network  of  veins,  upon  the  lobule-walls,  which 
are  continuous  with  the  final  branches  of  a  small  trunk  pass- 
ing between  the  lobules,  from  the  portal  vein  (333)  within 
the  portal  canal.  The  hepatic  system,  therefore,  is  continuous 
with  the  portal.  Each  portal  vein  is  always  accompanied  by 
a  hepatic  duct  and  artery,  and  the  three  are  enveloped  in  one 
sheath  of  areolar  tissue,  which  gives  off  partitions  to  separate 
the  vessels  from  each  other.  Outside  and  beyond  these  canals, 
this  tissue  invests  the  free  portion  of  each  lobule,  filling  the 
inter-spaces.  If  the  other  portions  could  be  removed,  leaving 
the  areolar  tissue  intact,  we  should  have  a  perfect  areolar 
skeleton  of  the  liver. 

FIG.  84. 


FIG.  84  (Lady).  INFERIOR  SURFACE  OF  THE  LIVER. — 1,  Right  lobe.  2,  Left  lobe.  3, 
Posterior  margin.  4,  Anterior  margin.  5,  Quadrate  lobe.  6,  Caudate  lobe.  7,  Isthmus, 
or  caudate  process,  connecting  the  latter  with  the  right  lobe.  8,  9,  Longitudinal  fissure. 
10,  Transverse  fissure.  11,  Portal  vein.  12,  Hepatic  artery.  13,  Common  biliary  duct, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  hepatic  and  cystic  ducts.  14,  Gall-bladder.  15,  Inferior  cava 
16,  Hepatic  veins.  17,  Round  ligament.  18,  Anterior  part  of  the  suspensory  ligament. 

245.  The  SPLEEN  has  two  coats — the  outer,  serous  coat, 
being  a  reflection  of  the  peritoneum ;  the  inner,  fibro-elastic 


116 

coat,  is  composed  of  white  fibrous  tissue  mingled  with  elastic 
tissue ;  when  torn,  the  lacerated  surfaces  present  a  deep  red- 
dish-brown, pulpy  appearance,  resembling  coagulated  blood. 
The  particular  arrangement  and  relationship  of  its  constituents 
have  not  been  satisfactorily  determined. 

246.  The  PERITONEUM  is  a  serous  membrane  which  invests 
all  the  abdominal  viscera,  and  is  then  reflected  upon  the  walls 
of  the  abdomen.     The  large  doubling  of  the  peritoneum  re- 
flected from  the  front  of  the  vertebral  column  over  the  small 
intestine  is  called  the  mesentery. 

\  21.  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. — Secretions  effecting 
Chemical  Changes  during  Digestion.  Chemical  Character  of  these  Se- 
cretions— Of  Saliva —  Of  the  Gastric  Juice—  Of  Bile.  Of  the  Pancreatic 
Juice — Of  the  Intestinal  Juice.  Relation  of  Adds  and  Alkalies  in  tht 
Digestive  Fluids. 

247.  The  chemical  processes  concerned  in  digestion  con- 
sist of  peculiar  reactions  between  the  food  and  the  various 
secretions  of  the  alimentary  canal.     These  fluids  are — mucus 
and  saliva,  secretions  of  the  mucous  membrane  and  glands  of 
the  mouth ;  gastric  juice,  a  secretion  of  the  stomach ;  bile,  a 
secretion  of  the  liver;  pancreatic  juice,  a  secretion  of  the  pan- 
creas ;  mucus  and  intestinal  juices,  secretions  of  the  mucous 
membrane  and  glands  of  the  intestines.     Each  of  these  fluids 
effects  a  special  change  in  the  constituents  of  food,  till  they 
are  finally  converted  from  an  insoluble  to  a  soluble  condition, 
in  which  they  may  be  absorbed. 

248.  Mucus  is  a  colorless  and  very  viscid  fluid  found  upon 
the  mucous  membrane,  and  secreted  from  the  plasma  of  the 
blood  by  the  epithelial  cells  of  that  membrane.     It  is  some- 
times alkaline,  sometimes  acid,  but  perhaps  in  its  normal 
state,  neutral.     It  is  composed  chiefly  of  water,  holding  from 
four  to  six  per  cent,  of  solids.     Its  characteristic  constituent 
is  Mucin  (60),  also  a  small  amount  of  extractions,  and  salts 
like  those  of  the  blood.     It  has  limited  solvent  powers,  its 
chief  office  seeming  to  be  to  moisten  the  food,  and  thus  pre- 
pare it  for  the  action  of  other  digestive  fluids. 


THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.  117 

249.  SALIVA  is  a  transparent,  watery  fluid,  with  a  specific 
gravity  varying  from  1002  to  1008.  Its  chemical  composi- 
tion, as  given  by  Dr.  Wright  (who  has  made  the  salivary 
secretion  a  special  study),  is  as  follows : 

Water 988.10 

Salivin 1.80 

Mucus  (and  epithelium) 2.60 

Fatty  matter 50 

Albumen  (with  soda) 1.70 

Sulpho-cyanide  of  potassium .90 

Alkaline  and  earthy  salts 3.20 

1.20 


1000.00 

When  first  secreted  or  during  secretion,  saliva  is  alkaline ; 
in  fasting,  the  moisture  of  the  mouth  is  nearly  neutral,  or 
even  acid ;  but  it  consists  at  that  time  almost  entirely  of 
mucus.  Of  salts,  the  tri-basic  phosphate  of  soda  probably 
gives  the  alkalinity  to  the  secretion.  Saliva  contains  a  pecu- 
liar and  remarkable  salt,  sulpho-cyanide  of  potassium.  Be- 
sides, there  are  found  chlorides  of  sodium  and  potassium, 
sulphate  of  soda,  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  oxide 
of  iron.  The  "  tartar"  of  the  teeth  is  formed  by  these  earthy 
salts  mixed  with  mucus,  and  minute  portions  of  other  animal 
matter.  The  chemical  action  of  saliva  is — -first,  that  of  a 
solvent ;  it  dissolves  saline  substances,  organic  acids,  alcohols 
and  ethers,  gum,  sugar  and  the  soluble  albuminoid  and  gela- 
tinoid  bodies.  Second,  the  saliva  converts  starch  granules 
into  dextrine,  then  into  soluble  dextrose,  glucose,  or  grape 
sugar.  A  mixture  of  all  the  fluids  of  the  mouth  appears  to 
form  the  most  active  combination  for  this  purpose. 

250.  The  GASTRIC  JUICE  is  a  colorless,  or  pale-yellow,  trans- 
parent, slightly  viscid  and  strongly  acid  fluid.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  1025.  Its  composition  as  given  by  Schmidt  is — 

Water 994.4 

Pepsin,  with  other  organic  matter -. 3.2 

Salts 2.2 

Free  hydrochloric  acid .2 

1000.0 


118  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

The  small  quantity  of  solid  matter  (about  five  per  cent.)  is 
remarkable,  considering  its  extremely  active  powers.  Pepsin 
is  its  characteristic  constituent  (58).  The  saline  matter  of  the 
gastric  juice  consists  chiefly  of  alkaline  and  earthy  chlorides 
and  phosphates.  A  small  amount  of  lactic  acid  is  found,  but 
whether  as  a  product  of  secretion  or  decomposition,  is  not 
certain.  The  free  hydrochloric  acid  affords  singular  example 
of  the  liberation  of  a  mineral  acid  from  its  strongly-combined 
base  by  an  organic  process  in  the  animal  economy ;  the  source 
of  this  acid  is  probably  common  salt.  Though  the  most 
powerful  solvent  known,  the  gastric  juice  seems  to  have  no 
effect  upon  living  animal  substances ;  hence  the  membranes 
of  the  stomach  remain  intact  as  long  as  their  vital  power  con- 
tinues. A  recent  view,  founded  upon  many  experiments,  attri- 
butes the  non-solution  to  the  protecting  influence  of  the  blood 
in  the  capillaries,  which  is  supposed  to  maintain  the  alka- 
linity of  the  tissues — a  chemical  condition  incompatible  with 
peptic  digestion.  Gastric  juice  changes  cane-sugar  into  glu- 
cose— albuminous  substances,  as  albumen,  fibrin,  casein,  etc., 
into  substances  called  peptones.  Gelatinous  substances  are 
changed  chemically  by  the  gastric  juice,  and  lose  their 
property  of  gelatinizing  when  cold ;  but  this  change  is  not 
necessary  to  their  solution,  which  takes  place  so  readily  that 
these  substances  may  be  taken  as  food,  when  albuminous 
substances  would  remain  in  the  stomach  undissolved. 

251.  BILE  is  a  somewhat  viscid,  glutinous  and  bitter  fluid, 
of  a  dark  golden-brown  color.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about 
1026.  Its  acid  (cholic  and  tauro-cholic)  forms  four  to  seven 
per  cent,  of  the  secretion,  and  is  always  united  with  soda ; 
the  coloring  matter  forms  about  five  per  cent. ;  ordinary  fats, 
about  one  per  cent. ;  salts,  one  per  cent. ;  there  are  also  traces 
of  choles' ferine.  Bile  is  but  slightly  alkaline,  and  is  some- 
times neutral.  It  is  an  important  agent  in  digestion,  but  its' 
action  does  not  depend  upon  an  albuminoid  like  saliva,  pepsin 
or  pancreatin.  It  acts  feebly  in  changing  starch  into  sugar, 
and  changes  cane-sugar  slowly,  but  grape-sugar  rapidly,  into 
lactic  acid.  It  dissolves  neither  albuminoid  substances  nor 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS.  119 

fat,  but  probably  emulsifies  the  latter.  Bile  is  said  to  arrest 
the  actions  of  saliva  and  the  gastric  juice ;  it  probably  com- 
pletes some  particular  part  of  the  digestive  process,  but  its 
specific  action  is  not  well  understood. 

252.  The  PANCREATIC  JUICE  is  somewhat  viscid,  trans- 
parent, colorless  and  inodorous.     Its  solid  constituents  vary 
from  1.5  to  10  per  cent.     Its  salts  are  chiefly  chloride  of 
sodium,  and  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia.     It  is  more 
strongly  alkaline  than  saliva ;  as  digestion  goes  on,  it  becomes 
more  alkaline  and  less  viscid.     Its  most  peculiar  constituent 
is  pancreatin,  an  albuminoid  substance  whose  special,  com- 
position is  not  yet  determined.    This  juice  is  sometimes  called 
abdominal  saliva ;  as  it  has,  like  saliva,  the  power  of  convert- 
ing starch  into  dextrine  and  grape-sugar.     It  has  of  itself 
little  power  over  albuminoid  and  gelatinous  substances,  but 
is  co-operative  with  the  gastric  juice.     Its  chief  office  seems 
to  be  to  emulsify  fatty  matters,  in  which  it  probably  acts 
with  the  bile. 

253.  The  composition  of  INTESTINAL  JUICES  is  not  well 
known.     They   probably   differ  from   common   mucus,  and 
have  special  properties.     They  are  colorless,  viscid,  and  con- 
tain from  2  to  3.5  per  cent,  of  solid  matter.     They  appear  to 
be  alkaline  in  the  ileum,  or  lower  part  of  the  small  intestines, 
acid  in  the  coecum,  or  beginning  of  the  large  intestines,  and 
alkaline  through  the  remainder.     They  convert  starch  into 
sugar,  which  in  the  small  intestines  passes  into  lactic  and 
butyric  acids ;  and  act  still  more  powerfully  upon  albuminoid 
substances,  and  also  emulsify  fat. 

254.  The  changes  which  take  place  in  the  three  staminal 
principles  of  food — saccharine,  albuminoid  and  oleaginous  sub- 
stances— from  their  entrance  into  the  mouth  till  ready  for 
absorption,  sum  up  as  follows :  The  conversion  of  starch  com- 
mences with  the  saliva ;  that  of  albuminoids  and  cane-sugar 
with  the  gastric  juice ;  the  emulsifying  of  fats  with  the  bile 
and  pancreatic  juice.     These  processes  go  on  independently 
of  each  other ;  the  salivary  action  being  unaffected  by  the 
gastric  function,  but  both  aided  somewhat  by  the  pancreatic 


120  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

juice;  the  intestinal  juice  coming  in  as  a  general  auxiliary 
agent,  to  complete  and  harmonize  the  several  operations  com- 
menced at  different  points  in  the  alimentary  canal. 

255.  It  will  be  noticed  in  the  digestive  fluids  that  there  are 
successive  alternations  of  alkali  and  acid :  the  saliva  being 
alkaline;  the  gastric  juice,  acid;  the  pancreatic  juice,  bile 
and  juice  of  the  ileum,  or  third  part  of  the  small  intestine, 
more  or  less  alkaline;  that  of  the  coacum  of  the  large  in- 
testine,  acid;    that  of  the  remaining  portion,   alkaline; — 
alternations  giving  neutralizations  of  great  importance  in  the 
chemistry  of  digestion. 

§  22.  PHYSIOLOGY  OP  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. — The  Assimilation 
of  Food.  Process  by  which  Food  is  transformed  into  Chyle.  Destina- 
tion of  the  Chyle. 

256.  Food  is  necessary  to  the  preservation  and  growth  of 
the  body,  but  it  must  first  be  animalized,  or  assimilated;  that 
is,  converted  into  matter  having  the  same  characteristics  as 
those  animal  substances  into  which  it  is  at  length  to  be  in- 
corporated.    "We  may  include  under  the  term  Primary  As- 
similation, those  animalizing  changes  necessary  to  the  con- 
version of  food  into  chyle  and  blood:  under  Secondary  Assimi- 
lation, those  necessary  to  the  conversion  of  blood  into  integral 
parts  of  solid  tissue.     The  first  series  of  changes  is  included  in 
the  process  named  Digestion,  by  which  food  is  transformed 
from  its  crude  state  into  chyle. 

257.  The  alimentary  canal  in  which  these  digestive  changes 
take  place,  is  like  a  long  manufacturing  establishment,  with 
many  apartments ; — the  first  room  being  the  mouth,  or  mas- 
ticating room,  where  some  of  the  workmen  cut  the  food; 
some  grind   it;    some   moisten   it  and   supply  the  needed 
chemicals  for  making  one  of  the  animalizing  changes.   Masti- 
cation being  completed,  at  the  word  of  command,  the  obedient 
muscles,  with  greatest  promptness  and  efficiency,  convey  the 
food   onward   to   that   wonderful   laboratory — the   stomach. 
The  muscles  of  the  soft  palate  raise  the  curtain  from  the  base 
of  the  tongue,  and  incline  it  backward,  closing  the  opening 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS.  121 

into  the  nostrils ;  those  of  the  small  open  lid  of  the  trachea, 
the  epiglottis,  close  the  lid  tightly  that  the  food  may  pass 
safely  over,  while  the  muscles  of  the  tongue,  cheeks  and  floor 
of  the  mouth,  force  the  food  back  into  the  pharynx  and  the 
oesophagus,  the  circular  muscles  of  which,  by  alternate  re- 
laxation and  contraction,  urge  it  into  the  stomach.  Here  the 
food  is  subjected  to  a  remarkable  chemical  agent,  the  Gastric 
Juice,  which  changes  it  from  a  crude  state  into  a  soft,  homo- 
geneous pulp,  called  Chyme. 

258.  Recent  investigations  show  that  this  juice  is  less  of  a 
"universal  solvent"    than  was   formerly  supposed — that  its 
chemical  power  is  limited  to  azotized  substances;  changing 
albuminoids  into  albuminose,  and  gelatinoids  into  gelatinose, 
the  conditions  best  adapted  to  assimilation.     The  change  in 
starch  which  continues  in  the  stomach,  is  effected  by  the 
presence  of  the  saliva,  which  commenced  its  work  in  the 
mouth.     Oleaginous  matters  are  only  reduced  to  a  fine  state 
of  division  and  held  in  suspension  by  the  pulpy  chyme. 

During  these  processes,  the  mass  is  undergoing  a  churning 
or  rotary  motion,  by  the  joint  manipulations  of  the  longi- 
tudinal, circular  and  oblique  muscles,  thus  bringing  part  after 
part  into  the  immediate  presence  of  the  Gastric  Juice.  While 
digestion  is  thus  going  on,  the  openings  of  the  stomach  are 
well  guarded.  A  return  of  any  part  of  the  mass  into  the 
oesophagus  is  prevented  by  the  sphincter  muscles  near  the 
cardiac  orifice ;  and  the  passage  to  the  intestines  is  closed  by 
the  sphincter  muscles  of  the  pyloric  orifice,  and  a  valve  called 
the  pylorus,  or  "  gate-keeper,"  which,  true  to  its  name,  stands 
a  faithful  sentinel  till  proper  chyme  presents  itself,  showing 
evidence  of  having  completed  the  prescribed  curriculum. 
This  sentinel-commission  seems  to  last  only  during  the  pro- 
cess of  digestion,  as  afterward  many  substances  previously 
detained  are  allowed  free  egress. 

259.  After  passing  the  pyloric  orifice,  the  chyme  is  treated 
by  other  chemical  agents — the  bile,  the  pancreatic  and  intes- 
tinal juices,  continuing  the  chemical  processes  commenced  in 
other  parts  of  the  alimentary  canal.     The  fats  are  reduced  to 

11  P 


122  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

an  exceedingly  fine  state  of  emulsion,  but  there  is  no  proof 
of  chemical  change.  The  whole  pulp  is  subjected  to  the  con- 
stant wave-like,  or  peristaltic  muscular  action  of  the  intes- 
tines, which  forces  their  contents  to  their  respective  destina- 
tions. The  nutritive  portion  is  called  chyle,  and  is  taken  up 
by  the  absorbent  vessels  and  conveyed  to  the  blood ;  while 
the  innutritious  portion  is  excreted  from  the  system. 

260.  The  absorbing  surface  of  the  intestines  is  enormously 
increased  by  the  projecting  forms  and  great  abundance  of  the 
vitti:  they  hang  out  into  the  nutritious,  semi-fluid  mass  con- 
tained in  the  cavity  of  the  intestines,  as  the  roots  of  a  tree 
penetrate  the  soil,  imbibing  the  liquid  portions  of  food  with 
wonderful  rapidity. 

§  23.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. — Suggestions  relative  to 
the  Preservation  of  the  Teeth — To  their  Removal.  Conditions  affecting 
thk  Quantity  of  Food  demanded  by  the  System.  The  Quality  of  Food. 
Directions  relating  to  the  Manner  of  taking  Food.  Conditions  of  the 
System  requisite  for  the  proper  Digestion  of  Food. 

261.  For  the  Preservation  of  the  Teeth,  the  first  requisite  is 
to  keep  them  clean.     After  meals  they  should  be  cleansed,  to 
prevent  the  collection  of  tartar,  and  to  remove  any  remain- 
ing particles  of  food.     Such  as  are  inaccessible  to  the  brush, 
may  be  removed  by  tooth-picks  made  or  wood,  ivory  or  the 
common  goose-quill.     Metal  injures  the  enamel.     Night  and 
morning,  the   mouth   should   be   cleansed  with  pure,  tepid 
water,  after  which  the  teeth  should  be  thoroughly  brushed  on 
both  surfaces.    Occasionally,  refined  soap  may  be  moderately 
used,  if  followed  by  thorough  rinsing  of  the  mouth. 

Sudden  changes  of  temperature  crack  the  enamel,  hence 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  food  and  drinks  should  be 
avoided.  Acid  and  corrosive  substances  should  also  be 
avoided,  as  acidulated  drinks  and  mineral  waters,  that  "set 
the  teeth  on  edge."  All  tooth-powders  containing  such 
articles  should  be  banished  from  the  toilet. 

Tobacco  contains  a  "grit"  which  injures  the  enamel.  It 
also  discolors  the  teeth,  debilitates  the  vessels  of  the  gums, 


THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.  123 

taints  the  breath  and  renders  the  appearance  of  the  mouth 
forbidding. 

The  teeth  should  be  frequently  examined,  that  if  enamel 
is  removed  and  decay  commenced,  they  may  be  filled  with 
gold-foil.  All  amalgams,  pastes  and  cheap  patent  articles 
should  be  rejected,  both  for  the  sake  of  the  teeth  and  the 
general  health. 

262.  The  Removal  of  the    Teeth.      The  temporary   teeth 
should  be  removed  at  once,  when  loose ;  or  before,  if  the  per- 
manent teeth  appear.     This  is  essential  to  the  regularity  and 
beauty  of  the  second  set. 

Irregular  or  crowded  permanent  teeth,  generally,  require  the 
removal  of  one  or  more.  By  pressure  upon  each  other,  the 
enamel  is  injured  and  the  appearance  rendered  unsightly. 
With  a  little  care  the  spaces  left  after  extraction  will  soon  be 
filled  with  the  remaining  teeth. 

Toothache  does  not  always  indicate  the  necessity  of  ex- 
traction, as  the  nerve,  or  investing  membrane,  may  be  dis- 
eased, and  the  tooth  sound.  Relief  will  then  be  afforded  by 
proper  medication. 

Observation. — When  the  removal  of  a  tooth  is  necessary, 
apply  to  some  skillful  operator:  something  more  is  needed 
than  strong  muscles  and  a  pair  of  forceps.  Skill  is  as  requi- 
site in  the  proper  extraction  of  a  tooth,  as  in  the  amputation 
of  a  limb. 

263.  The  health  ',f  the  Digestive  Organs,  in  general,  re- 
quires the  observance  of  certain  conditions  relative  to  their 
natural  stimulus — Food.     These  will  be  considered  under  the 
following  heads :  1.  The  .Quantity  of  Food.     2.  The  Quality 
of  Food.     3.   The  Manner  of  taking  Food.     4.    The  Proper 
Conditions  of  the  System  for  receiving  Food. 

264.  The  QUANTITY  OF  FOOD  necessary  to   the  system 
varies,   being    affected    by    age,    occupation,   temperament, 
habits,  temperature,  amount  of  clothing,  health  and  mental 
state. 

265.  The  supply  must  equal  the  waste  of  the  system.   In  every 
department  of  nature,  waste  attends  action.     The  greater  the 


124          ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 

amount  of  exercise,  the  more  rapidly  will  the  particles  bo 
worn  out  and  removed,  and  their  places  need  supplying  with 
new  atoms. 

During  the  period  of  growth,  the  supply  must  exceed  the  waste, 
for  the  building  of  new  tissues.  This  accounts  for  the  keen 
appetite  and  vigorous  digestion  in  childhood.  The  same  is 
true  when  persons  have  become  emaciated  from  famine  or 


266.  When  exercise  is  lessened,  the  quantity  of  food  should  be 
proportionally  diminished,  otherwise  the  tone  of  the  digestive 
organs  will  be  impaired,  and  the  health  of  the  system  en- 
feebled.    This  is  especially  applicable  to  students,  who  have 
been    accustomed    to    laborious    employments.      Self-denial 
should  be  practiced  for  a  few  days,  when  the  real  wants  of 
the  system  will  generally  be  manifested  by  a  corresponding 
sensation  of  hunger.     It  is  a  common  remark  that  in  semi- 
naries and  colleges,  students  jrom  the  country  suffer  more 
from  indigestion  and  impaired  health,  than  those  from  the 
cities, 

267.  More  food  is  required  in  winter  than  in  summer;  hence, 
by  diminishing  the  amount  of  food  as  the  warm  season  ap- 
proaches, the  tone  of  the  stomach  and  vigor  of  the  system 
will   be   better   maintained,  thus   lessening  the  liability  to 
"summer  complaint"     In  this  respect,  the   lower   animals 
seem  to  learn  from  instinct,  what  man  is  slow  to  learn  from 
reason. 

268.  The  amount  of  food  should  be  adapted  to  the  present 
condition  of  the  digestive  organs.     Imperfectly  digested  food 
irritates  the  mucous  membrane  of^the  intestines  and  debili- 
tates the  system  instead  of  invigorating  it.     In  sickness,  the 
attending  physician  is  the  person  to  decide  respecting  the 
proper  amount.     In  health,  the  natural  appetite  is  generally 
a  safe  guide,  as  to  plain,  nutritious  food;  but  condiments, 
spices,  etc.,  excite  a  morbid  appetite,  whose  cravings  it  is  un- 
safe to  gratify.     General  languor  of  the  body  after  meals, 
shows  that  undue  demands  are  made  for  an  increased  supply 
of  fluids  to  enable  the  overloaded  stomach  to  free  itself  of  its 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS.  125 

burden.     This,  with  the  extra  labor  of  the  secreting  glands, 
will  soon  be  followed  by  debility  and  consequent  inaction. 

269.  The  QUALITY  OF  FOOD  should  be  both  nutritive  and 
digestible.     Substances  are  nutritious  in  proportion  to  their 
capacity  to  yield  the  constituents  of  chyle.     Substances  are 
digestible  in  proportion  to  the  facility  with  which  they  are 
acted  upon  by  the  digestive  fluids.     Articles  highly  nutri- 
tive in  themselves,  but  difficult  of  digestion,  often  yield  less 
nourishment  than  those  poorer  in  nutritive  quality,  but  easy 
of  digestion.    If  we  confine  our  diet  to  easily  digested  articles, 
the  digestive  organs  will  be  weakened  from  want  of  proper 
exercise ;  if  to  highly  concentrated  diet,  they  will  be  injured 
by  over-work ;  hence,  the  necessity  of  choosing,  in  this  respect, 
the  "  happy  medium." 

270.  Proper  aliment  must  contain  the  three  staminal  prin- 
ciples of  food.     These  are  albuminous,  oleaginous  and  saccha- 
rine substances ;  the  first  contain  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen 
and  nitrogen ;  the  last  two  are  destitute  of  nitrogen.    Various 
experiments  have  shown  that  if  we  feed  upon  any  one  of 
these  groups,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  two,  or  upon  any 
two  to  the  exclusion  of  the  third,  the  health  will  be  impaired. 
Milk  contains  all  the  food  principles ; — the  albuminous,  being 
furnished  by  its  caseine;  the  oily,  by  the  butter;  and  the 
saccharine,  by  the  sugar  of  milk.     Beef  is  rich  in  fat  and 
albumen,  and  also  contains  inosit,  or  muscle  sugar.     Most  of 
the  cereals  contain  gluten  (an  albuminoid),  starch,  sugar  and 
oil.     Wheat,  however,  has  the  first  three  constituents  without 
the  oil.    It  is  most  nutritious  in  the  form  of  "  Graham  flour ;" 
by  rejecting  the  bran,  most  of  the  gluten  is  lost.     Eggs  are 
very  rich  in  albumen,  and  the  yolk  also  contains  oil.     Beans, 
peas,  etc.  afford  starch  and  much  legumine  (an  albuminoid). 
Potatoes  abound  in  starch.     Sago,  tapioca,  rice,  arrow-root, 
etc.,  are  constituted  almost  wholly  of  starch.     These  articles 
or  their  substitutes,  properly  combined,  will  yield  the  neces- 
sary elements  to  the  system. 

271.  Food  should  be  properly  cooked.     However  nutritious 
an  article  of  food  may  be,  if  not  well  cooked,  it  is  not  only 

11* 


126          ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

unsavory  to  the  palate,  but  hurtful  to  the  digestive  organs. 
The  simplest  methods  of  preparation  by  cooking  are  the  best. 
Meat  should  be  broiled,  roasted,  or  made  into  soup.  Fried 
meats  are  apt  to  be  indigestible  and  also  less  nutritious. 
The  fat  used  in  frying  is  infiltrated  by  the  heat  and  usually 
penetrates  the  whole  mass.  It  is  mistaken  economy  to  fry 
meats  for  the  laboring  class;  better  throw  the  fresh  steak 
upon  coals,  and  add  simply  salt  and  pepper,  than  to  deluge 
it  in  boiling  fat.  Much  of  the  nutriment  of  beef  when  salted, 
is  extracted  by  the  brine ;  and  during  the  process  of  boiling, 
still  another  portion  remains  in  the  boiling  water,  thus  leaving 
but  little  more  than  hardened  muscular  fibre  to  grace  the 
platter.  (The  liquor  of  boiled  beef  may  be  converted  into 
soup.)  The  breakfast  "hash"  is  too  frequently  unfit  to  be 
eaten  by  the  student  or  sedentary  person,  from  want  of  being 
well  cooked. 

The  cooking  of  vegetables  should  be  thorough  and  com- 
plete. The  proper  combination  and  cooking  of  a  few  articles 
of  food  (as  flour,  milk,  eggs  and  butter),  require  skill,  which 
in  reality,  assumes  the  importance  of  no  inferior  art. 

272.  The  Quality  of  Food  should  be  adapted  to  the  season  and 
climate.     Highly  stimulating  food  may  be  used  almost  with 
impunity  during  the  cold  season  of  a  cold  climate ;  but  in  the 
w*rm  season  and  in  a  warm   climate  it  is  very  injurious. 
Animal  food  being  more  stimulating  than  vegetable,  is  there- 
fore well  adapted  to  winter,  and  vegetable  to  spring  and 
Bummer.     Where  the  digestive  organs  are  weakened  or  dis- 
eased, it  is  very  important  that  a  nutritious  vegetable  diet  be 
adopted  as  the  warm  season  approaches. 

273.  Vegetable  diet  is  most  suitable  for  children.    The  organs 
of  a  child  are  more  sensitive  and  excitable  than  those  of  an 
adult;    hence,  stimulants  of  every  kind  should  be  strictly 
avoided,  and  the  food  mainly  of  a  vegetable  character.     In 
this  "fast  age,"   this   is  a  suggestion  of  vast  importance. 
Parents  mourn  over  many  evil  effects  of  unrestrained  passion 
and  moral  deterioration  in  the  rising  generation,  while  in 
truth,  these  are  too  often  but  the  legitimate  harvest  of  the 


THE   DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.  127 

they  have  themselves  sown  in  the  form  of  stimulating 
food  and  drinks.  The  old  spelling-book  assertion,  that 
"Bread  and  milk  is  the  best  food  for  children"  is  as  true 
now,  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  our  fathers. 

274.  Some  temperaments  require   more  stimulating  food 
than  others.     As  a  general  rule,  persons  of  obtuse  sensations, 
and  slow  movements,  are  benefited  by  animal  or  stimulating 
food ;  while  individuals  of  highly  sensitive  constitutions,  and 
quick,  hurried  movements,  require  a  nutritious  and  unstimu- 
lating  vegetable  diet. 

275.  THE  MANNER  OF  TAKING  FOOD  exercises  a  control- 
ling influence  upon  the  health  of  the  digestive  organs. 

276.  Food  should  be  properly  masticated.     This  is  essential 
to  secure  the  fine  division  necessary  to  the  proper  action  of 
the  gastric  juice  and  other  fluids,  and  especially  to  mix  the 
food  with   the  requisite  amount  of  saliva.      Rapid   eating 
should  be  avoided,  not  only  as  a  violation  of  good  table  man- 
ners, but  as  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  our  physical  nature, 
whose  penalty,  in  the  form  of  dyspepsia  with  its  numerous 
train  of  evils,  will  sooner  or  later  be  visited  upon  the  trans- 
gressor. 

277.  Drink  should  not  be  taken  with  the  food.     Nature  sup- 
plies the  appropriate  moisture,  and  if  tea,  coffee,  or  any  other 
fluid  be  used  as  a  substitute,  indigestion  will  follow,  from  the 
absence  of  the  necessary  amount  of  saliva.     Again,  drinks 
taken  into  the  stomach  must  be  absorbed  before  the  digestion 
of  other  articles  is  commenced.     Thirst  between  the  meals 
does  not  always  arise  from  a  demand  of  the  system  for  fluids, 
but  may  be  induced  by  fever  or  local  disease  of  the  parts 
connected  with  the  throat.     This  may  often  be  relieved  by 
chewing  a  cracker,  or  some  other  dry  substance,  thus  exciting 
the  salivary  glands.     This  is  a  safe  resort  when  thirst  accom- 
panies a  heated  condition  of  the  system,  arising  from  over- 
exercise  ;  while  the  practice  of  taking  cold  fluids  is  dangerous 
and  should  never  be  indulged. 

278.  Regard  should  be  paid  to  the  temperature  of  food  and 
drink.     Hot  food  or  drink,  for  a  short  time  unduly  stimu- 


128  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

lates  the  vessels  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  gums,  mouth 
and  stomach  ;  then  reaction  follows,  bringing  loss  of  tone  and 
debility  of  these  parts.  This  practice  is  a  fruitful  cause  of 
spongy  gums,  decayed  teeth,  sore  mouth  and  indigestion. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  food  or  drink  be  taken  too  cold,  an 
undue  amount  of  heat  is  abstracted  from  the  stomach,  this 
arrests  the  digestive  process,  and  thus  deranges  the  system. 

279.  Food  should  be  taken  at  regular  and  suitable  periods. 
The  interval  between  the  meals  should  be  regulated  by  the 
character  of  the  food,  and  the  age,  health,  exercise  and  habits 
of  the  individual.    In  the  young,  the  active,  and  the  vigorous, 
food  is  more  rapidly  digested  than  in  the  aged,  the  indolent 
and  the  feeble;  consequently,  it  should  be  taken  more  fre- 
quently by  the  former  class  than  by  the  latter.     The  average 
time  required  to  digest  an  ordinary  meal  is  from  two  to  four 
hours.     The  stomach  should  always  have  from  one  to  three 
hours  of  rest,  before  the  next  meal.     Eating  between  meals, 
is  a  habit  ruinous  to  the  digestive  organs,  inasmuch  as  the 
chemical   processes   are   by  this   means   disturbed,  and   the 
stomach  given  no  time  for  rest. 

280.  THE  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  SYSTEM  FOR  RECEIVING 
FOOD,  are  of  practical  importance  for  the  healthy  action  of 
the  digestive  process. 

281.  Food  should  not  be  taken  immediately  before  or  after 
severe  exercise  of  body  or  mind.     The  functional  exercise  of 
any  organ  abstracts  fluids,  sanguineous  and  nervous,  from 
other  parts  of  the  body,  thus  weakening  those  parts  for  the 
time.     Severe  exercise  of  muscle,  concentrates  the  forces  in 
the  muscle ;  severe  exercise  of  the  brain,  concentrates  the 
forces  in  the  brain ;  the  same  is  true  of  the  vocal  and  other 
organs.     After  severe  exercise,  from  thirty  to  forty  minutes 
should  be  allowed  before  eating,  for  restoring  equilibrium  to 
the  system.     The  student,  farmer  or  mechanic,  who  hurries 
from  his  toil  to  his  dinner  to  "save  time,"  will,  in  the  end, 
lose  more  time  than  he  saves.     After  eating,  the  digestive 
>rgans  need,  for  a  time,  the  chief  use  of  the  vital  forces,  and 
f  they  are  habitually  expended  elsewhere,  as  in  study  or 


THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.  129 

labor,  digestion  will  be  arrested,  the  chyle  cheated  of  its 
proper  elements,  and  headache,  dullness  and  general  derange- 
ment will  follow.  A  moderate  exercise  of  the  muscles,  a 
social  chat  and  a  hearty  laugh,  aid  digestion,  and  tend  "  to 
shake  the  cobwebs  from  the  brain."  These  directions  are 
particularly  applicable  to  the  ambitious  student  who  feels 
that  he  must  "save  time"  and  "must  have  the  lesson."  Let 
him  try  the  experiment,  and  he  will  soon  find  that  in  the 
after-dinner  hour,  his  lesson  is  better  learned  when  he  spends 
half  the  hour  in  recreation,  and  the  other  half  in  close  appli- 
cation. Many  students  are  obliged  to  give  up  their  course 
of  study,  from  simple  neglect  of  these  rules. 

Observation. — The  same  principle  will  apply  to  lower  ani- 
mals. They  will  perform  more  labor  by  having  a  suitable 
period  of  repose  after  being  fed.  Two  d^gs  were  fed  upon 
the  same  kind  of  food,  one  was  kept  quiet,  the  other  sent  in 
pursuit  of  game.  In  an  hour  both  were  killed.  In  the 
stomach  of  the  quiet  dog,  digestion  was  nearly  complete ;  in 
that  of  the  other,  the  food  was  scarcely  altered. 

282.  Persons  should  abstain  from  eating  at  least  three  hours 
before  retiring  for  sleep.    It  is  no  unusual  occurrence  for  those 
persons  who  have  eaten  heartily  immediately  before  retiring 
to  have  unpleasant  dreams,  or  to  be  aroused  from  their  un- 
quiet slumber  by  colic  pains.     In  such  instances,  the  brain 
becomes  partially  dormant,  not  imparting  to  the  digestive 
organs  the  requisite  amount  of  nervous  influence ;  this  being 
deficient,  the  unchanged  food  remains  in  the  stomach,  causing 
irritation  of  this  organ.     A  healthy  farmer  who  was  in  the 
habit  of  eating  a  quarter  of  a  mince  pie  just  before  retiring, 
became  annoyed  with    unpleasant   dreams,  and  among  the 
images  of  his   fancy,  he  saw  that  of  his  deceased  father. 
Becoming  alarmed,  he  consulted  a  physician,  who,  after  a 
patient  hearing,  advised  the  patient  to  eat  half  a  mince  pie, 
assuring 'him  that  then  he  would  see  his  grandfather. 

283.  The  mental  state  exerts  an  influence  upon  the  digestive 
process.     This  is  clearly  exhibited  when  an  individual  re- 
ceives sad  intelligence.     Let  him  be  sitting  at  a  plentiful 

F* 


130  ,„      ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

board  with  a  keen  appetite,  and  the  unexpected  news  destroys 
it,  because  the  excited  brain  withholds  the  stimulus ;  hence 
all  unpleasant  themes,  labored  discussions,  or  matters  of  busi- 
ness, should  be  banished  from  the  table.  Light  conversa- 
tion, enlivening  wit  and  cheerful  humor  wonderfully  promote 
digestion. 

Indigestion  arising  from  nervous  prostration  should  be  treated 
with  great  care.  The  food  should  be  simple,  nutritious, 
properly  cooked,  moderate  in  quantity  and  taken  at  regular 
periods.  Large  quantities  of  stimulating  food,  frequently 
taken,  serve  to  increase  the  nervous  prostration.  Exercise 
in  the  open  air,  and  a  cheerful  state  of  mind,  are  very  bene- 
ficial in  restoring  the  natural,  healthy  action  of  the  brain, 
and  thus  aiding  the  digestive  powers. 

284.  After   long   abstinence,   unstimulating  food  should  be 
taken,  and  in  small  quantities.     As  in  case  of  sickness,  when 
the  appetite  begins  to  return,  the  nurse  must  use  much  dis- 
cretion, and  the  patient,  often,  self-denial.   The  popular  adage, 
"  that  food  never  does  harm,  when  there  is  a  desire  for  it,"  is 
untrue.    Too  frequently,  when  a  patient  satisfies  his  cravings, 
it  is  to  induce  relapse  into  the  former  disease,  and  at  the  risk 
of  life.    The  digestive  organs  are  weak,  and  must  be  gradually 
brought  into  action.     It  is  often  better  to  give  the  food  in  a 
solid,  rather  than  liquid  form,  so  that  the  salivary  and  mucous 
glands  may  be  stimulated  to  action. 

285.  The  condition  of  the  skin  exercises  an  important  in- 
fluence upon   digestion.     Let  free   perspiration  be  checked, 
either  from  uncleanliness,  chills  or  any  other  cause,  and  the 
functional  action  of  the  stomach  is  diminished.     This  is  one 
of  the  fruitful  causes  of  "liver  and   stomach   complaints" 
among  the  filthy  and  half-clad  inhabitants  of  our  cities  and 
villages.     Attention  to  bathing  and  clothing  would  prevent 
many  "season  complaints,"  especially  among  children. 

286.  Pure  air  is  necessary  to  give  a  keen  appetite  and  vigorous 
digestion.    The  digestive  organs  must  have  a  plentiful  supply 
of  pure  blood,  and  to  have  pure  blood  we  should  breathe 
pure  air.     Poor  ventilation  is  a  frequent  cause  of  indigestion. 


THE   DIGESTIVE    ORGANS.  131 

Persons  who  sleep  in  ill-ventilated  rooms  have  little  or  no 
appetite  in  the  morning.  A  manufacturer  stated  before  a 
committee  of  the  British  Parliament,  that  he  had  removed  an 
arrangement  for  ventilating  his  mill,  as  he  noticed  that  his 
men  ate  much  more  after  his  mill  was  ventilated  than  before, 
and  he  could  not  afford  to  have  them  breathe  the  pure  air. 
Compression  of  the  vital  organs  prevents  the  introduction  of 
a  sufficient  supply  of  pure  air,  and  is  one  of  the  causes  of 
dyspepsia  now  so  prevalent  among  ladies. 

General  Observations. — All  aliment  is  separated  into  nutri- 
ment and  residuum.  The  latter  should  be  regularly  expelled 
from  the  system,  otherwise  headache,  dizziness  and  general 
uneasiness  will  ensue,  and  if  allowed  to  continue,  the  founda- 
tion will  be  laid  for  a  long  period  of  suffering  and  disease. 
For  the  preservation  of  health,  there  should  be  in  most  per- 
sons a  daily  evacuation  of  residual  matter.  Evening  is  the 
best  time,  especially  is  this  true  when  persons  are  afflicted 
with  piles.  Constipation  may,  in  many  cases,  be  relieved 
by  friction  over  the  abdominal  organs,  and  by  making 
an  effort  to  evacuate  the  residuum  at  some  stated  period 
each  day. 

RECAPITULATION. — Digestion  is  most  perfect  when  the 
action  of  the  cutaneous  vessels  is  energetic ;  the  brain 
moderately  stimulated ;  the  blood  well  purified ;  the  mus- 
cular system  duly  exercised ;  the  food  -properly  cooked  and 
masticated,  taken  at  regular  periods,  and  adapted  in  quality 
and  quantity  to  the  present  condition  of  the  individual. 


|  24.  COMPARATIVE  SPLANCHNOLOGY. — Nutritive  Apparatus  of  Verte- 
brates. Compare  the  Mouths  and  Teeth  of  Vertebrates. — The  Digestirt 
Fluids. — The  Stomach  and  Intestines. 

287.  In  the  NUTRITIVE  APPARATUS  of  all  vertebrates, 
as  in  the  Motory,  a  general  plan  of  parts  obtains,  subject  to 
the  variations  required  to  preserve  the  harmony  of  relation 
between  the  organization  and  the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be 
applied. 


132 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND    HYGIENE. 


288.  In  no  part  do  we  find  a  greater  variety  or  a  nicer 
accommodation  to  particular  wants  than  in  the  MOUTHS 
and  TEETH  of  different  animals.  In  Mammals,  the  project- 
ing jaws,  the  wide  mouth,  the  strong,  pointed,  sharp,  ena- 
meled edges  of  the  teeth  enable  carnivorous,  or  flesh-eating 
animals,  to  seize  and  hold  their  prey,  and  the  hinge-like 
movement  of  the  jaw,  to  divide  it  like  a  pair  of  scissors;  as  seen 
in  the  cat  and  the  lion.  The  full  lips,  the  rough  tongue,  the 
Ul r rowed,  cartilaginous  palate,  the  broad,  rough  surface  of 
the  teeth,  the  central  plates  of  enamel  and  the  lateral  move- 
ment of  the  jaw,  qualify  the  herbivorous,  or  grain-eating  ani- 
mals, for  grazing,  and  grinding  their  food,  as  the  grain  is 
crushed  between  the  upper  and  nether  mill-stone;  as  the 
sheep  and  the  horse.  The  elongated,  tapering  muzzle,  the 


FIG.  85. 


Fin.  So. 


FlG.  85   REPRESENTS   THE   TEETH   OF    CARNIVORA,   OR    FLESH-EATING    ANIMALS. 
FlG.  86  REPRESENTS   THE   TEETH   OF   INSECTIVORA,   OR   INSECT-EATING   ANIMALS. 

cone-pointed,  enameled  molars  locking  into  the  enameled  de- 
pressions of  the  opposite  jaw,  enable  the  insectivorous  animals 
to  burrow  in  the  earth,  for  the  insects  and  worms  upon  which 
they  feed,  and  also  to  crush  them  ;  as  in  the  mole  and  hedge- 
hog. The  two  chisel-shaped  incisors,  enameled  only  in  front, 
allowing  more  rapid  wear  of  the  posterior  than  the  anterior 
part,  keeping  them  always  sharp;  the  bag  of  pulp  at  the 
base  of  these  teeth,  providing  for  growth  equal  to  the  wear  at 
the  top;  the  backward  and  forward  movement  of  the  jaws; 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS.  133 

and  the  great  size  and  strength  of  the  lower  jaw,  adapt  the 
rodentia,  or  gnawers,  to  their  mode  of  life ;  as  in  the  rat  and 
the  squirrel. 

FIG.  87. 


FIG.  87.  LOWER  JAW  OF  A  SQUIRREL. — 1,  The  enamel  of  the  gnawing  tooth.    2,  Tlif 
ivory.    3,  The  lateral  furrows  of  the  molar  teeth. 

289.  In  Birds  the  mouth  receives  a  new  character,  both  in 
substance  and  in  form.     Instead  of  fleshy  lips  and  teeth  of 
enameled  bone,  we  have  the  hard  and  horny  investment  of 
the  jaws,  known  as  the  bill,  destitute  of  true  teeth.     This 
organ  varies  in  size  and  form,  according  to  the  food  of  the 
species,  which  may  be  grains,  insects,  fishes  or  flesh. 

290.  Reptiles  swallow  their  food  without  mastication,  hence, 
their  jaws  and  throats  are  made  capable  of  great  dilatation, 
and  their  teeth,  used  only  for  seizing  and  retaining  their  prey, 
all  resemble  each  other. 

291.  The  jaws  of  most  Fishes  are  armed  with  teeth,  and  in 
many  cases  these  are  placed  in  all  parts  of  the  mouth,  and 
even  in  the  gullet. 

292.  In  most  animals,  the  digestive  fluids  are  supplied  by 
mucous  follicles  and  glands,  similar  to  the  salivary  glands  in 
man.     The  simpler  the  function  of  the  mouth,  the  smaller 
and  simpler  the  arrangement  for  the  supply  of  these  fluids, 
as  is  seen  in  birds,  also  in  reptiles,  and  some  fishes  that  swal- 
low their  food   without  mastication,  and  have  no  organ  of 
secretion  but  the  liver. 

293.  The  ST<  >MACH  and  INTESTINES  of  vertebrates  vary  in 
size,  form  and  relative  length.     They  are  simpler,  smaller 
and  shorter  in  carnivorous  than  in  herbivorous  or  granivorous 

12 


134  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

animals ;  while  the  ox  has  intestines  about  twenty  times  the 
length  of  his  body,  those  of  the  lion  are  but  three  or  four 
times  its  own  length. 

FIG.  88.  Fio.  89. 


FIG.  88.  STOMACH  OF  THE  SHEEP.—!,  The  oesophagus.  2,  The  rumen.  3,  The  reticulum. 
4,  The  omasum.  5,  The  abomasum,  or  rennet.  6,  The  intestine. 

FIG.  89.  STOMACH  OF  AN  Ox. — 1,  The  oosophagus.  2,  The  rumen  (paunch).  3,  The 
reticulum  (honeycomb).  4,  The  omasum  (many-plies).  5,  The  abomasum  (rennet).  6, 
The  intestine. 

294.  Kuminants,  as  the  sheep  and  ox,  have  a  stomach  with 
four  cavities.  The  first  stomach,  called  the  Ru'men,  or 
"Paunch;"  the  second,  the  Retic'ulum,  or  "Honeycomb ;"  the 
third,  the  Oma'sum,  or  "Many-Plies;"  the  fourth,  the  Abf oma- 
sum, or  "Rennet :"  the  latter,  taken  from  the  young  calf,  is 
used  in  cheese-making. 

The  food  when  first  swallowed  is  received  into  the  Rumen, 
where  it  accumulates  while  the  animal  is  feeding.  Here  it  is 
moistened  by  the  fluids  secreted  by  the  walls  of  this  cavity. 
It  then  passes  into  the  Reticulum,  where  it  receives  addi- 
tional secretions,  and  is  made  into  little  pellets,  or  "  cuds," 
which,  when  the  animal  is  at  rest,  are  returned  to  the  mouth, 
to  be  re-chewed  and  mixed  with  the  saliva.  This  pulp  passes 
directly  into  the  third  cavity,  to  be  prepared  for  the  fourth, 
where  true  digestion  takes  place.  It  is  then  received  by  the 
intestinal  canal. 


THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGANS.  135 

FIG.  90.  FIG.  91. 


FIG.  90.  THE  ALIMENTARY  CAXAL  OP  MAN. —  1,  (Esophagus.  2,  The  stomach.  3,  Car- 
diac orifice.  11,  Pylorus.  5,  Biliary  duct.  4,  4,  4,  4,  Small  intestiues.  6,  Pancreatic 
duct.  7,  Ascending  colon.  8,  Transverse  colon.  9,  Descending  colon.  10,  Rectum. 

FIG.  91.  THE  ALIMENTARY  CANAL  OF  A  FOWL. — 1,  The  oasophagus.  2,  Ingluvies  (crop). 
3,  Proveuticulus  (secreting  stomach).  4,  Triturating  stomach  (g  zard).  6,  Intestine 
6,  Two  ceeca. 


136  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE 

FIG.  92.  FIG.  93. 


FIG.  92.  THE  ALIMENTARY  CANAL  OP  THE  FLYING  LIZARD.—!,  The  oesophagus.  2,  Th« 
stomach.  3,  3,  Small  intestine.  4,  Large  intestine. 

FIG.  93.  THE  ALIMENTARY  CANAL  OF  THE  SWORD-FISH.— 1,  Liver.  2,  3,  Caucus,  or 
pouches,  connecting  with  small  intestine.  4,  5,  Small  intestine,  coiled.  6,  Large  intes- 
tine. 7,  Biliary  duct. 

295.  In  Birds  there  are  usually  three  cavities,  or  stomachs  ; 
the  first  is  a  dilatation  of  the  oesophagus,  called  the  Crop,  or 
"Inglu'vies"  where  the  food  is  macerated  and  softened;  the 
second  is  the  true  stomach,  named4  Pro ventric'ulus" where  the 
mucous  membrane  is  provided  with  mucous  follicles,  secreting 
an  acid  which  acts  still  farther  upon  the  food ;  and  the  third 
is  the  Gizzard,  or  Triturating  cavity.  The  latter,  in  graniv- 
orous  birds,  has  immense  strength,  being  composed  of  mus- 
cular fibres  running  in  different  directions,  and  lined  with  a 
horny  membrane.  Gravel  and  angular  stones  are  instinctively 


THE   DIGESTIVE   ORGANS.  137 

swallowed  to  assist  in  the  grinding  process.     In  flesh-eating 
birds  the  gizzard  is  thin  and  membranous. 

296.  In  Reptiles  the  alimentary  canal  differs  much  from 
that  of  mammals  or  birds.     As  a  general  rule,  it  is  shorter 
in  proportion  to  the  trunk  than  in  warm-blooded  vertebrates. 
The  transition  from  the  oesophagus  to  the  stomach  is  by  a 
pouch-like  enlargement ;  the  small  intestines  usually  have  a 
few   coils;    the  large  intestines  in   most  reptiles  are   short, 
simple  and  straight,  without  csecal  appendage  at  its  begin- 
ning.    The  liver  is  relatively  large. 

297.  In  Fishes,  the  alimentary  canal  is  more  diversified  in 
length,  size  and  form  than  in  reptiles ;  the  oesophagus  is  a 
short  and  funnel-shaped  canal ;  the  stomach  is  shaped  either 
like  a  syphon  or  a  pouch  (caeca).     In  some  species  of  fish, 
the  small  intestines  extend  in  a  line  from  the  stomach  to 
their  termination ;  in  others,  there  are  found  from  two  to 
eight   coils.     The   large   intestines   are   short   and   straight. 
The  liver  is  usually  large,  with  numerous  appendages.     In 
the  cod  it  is  soft  and  saturated  with  oil,  which  is  expressed 
for  medicinal  purposes.  » 

.  FIG.  94. 


Fro.  91.   THE    ALIMENTARY   CAKAI  OF  THE    HKRRINO.-!.   (Esophagus.      2,   Stomach. 
3,  S,  8,  3,  Small  intestino.    4,  Caeca.    5,  Air-bladder.    7,  Pneumatic  duct. 
12* 


CHAPTER   VII. 

ABSORPTION. 

298.  WE  have  observed  the  changes  in  food  till  its  forma- 
tion into  chyle — changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  and   which  are  included  under  the  general 
term,  Digestion.     The  chyle,  however,  is  virtually  external  to 
the   animal   body.     The  process   by  which  it  is   conveyed 
within  is  called  Absorption;  and  the  vessels  conveying  it  are 
named  Absorbents. 

The  term  absorption,  used  in  its  largest  sense,  however, 
includes  more  than  the  mere  taking  up  of  nutrient  material 
from  the  alimentary  canal.  It  embraces  that  general  pro- 
cess by  which  all  external  soluble  substances,  whether  solid, 
liquid  or  gaseous,  beneficial  or  poisonous,  nutrient,  stimulant 
or  respiratory,  are  introduced  into  the  tissues  of  the  body. 
It  also  comprehends,  in  part  at  least,  the  process  by  which 
portions  of  the  living  tissues  are  themselves  removed,  or  ab- 
sorbed within  the  body.  The  former  may  be  called  General 
Absorption,  and  the  latter,  Intrinsic,  or  Interstitial  Absorption. 

\  25.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  ABSORBENTS. — The  Process  of  Absorption — 
Specific  and  General.  The  Absorbent  Vessels.  Lymph.  Distribution 
of  the  Lymphatics.  The  Thoracic  Duct.  The  Lymphatic  Duct.  Posi- 
tion of  Lymphatic  Glands.  Absorbent  Veins. 

299.  The  absorbents  consist  of  certain  blood-vessels,  espe- 
cially the  venous  capillaries,  and  the  absorbents  proper,  viz., 
Lymphatic*  Vessels  and  Glands. 

The  fluid  conveyed  by  the  lymphatic  absorbents  is  a  trans- 
parent, transuded  portion  of  the  blood,  called  Lymph.  The 
lymphatic  vessels  of  the  small  intestines  are  named  Laef  teals  $ 

*  Lat.,  lympha,  water.  f  Lat.,  lac,  milk. 

138 


ABSORPTION. 

FIG.  95. 


139 


15 


Fio.  95.  A  REPRESENTATION  op  THE  LYMPHATIC  VESSELS  AND  GLANDS.—!,  2.  3, 4,  5,  6, 
The  lymphatic  vessels  and  glands  of  the  lower  limbs.  7,  Lymphatic  glands.  8,  The  com- 
mencement of  the  thoracic  duct.  9,  The  lymphatics  of  the  kidney.  10,  Of  the  stomach. 
11,  Of  the  liver.  12, 12,  Of  the  lungs.  13, 14, 15,  The  lymphatics  and  glands  of  the  arm. 
16, 17, 18,  Of  the  face  and  neck.  19,  20,  Large  veins.  21,  The  thoracic  duct. 


140  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

from  their  milky  appearance  during  active  digestion,  when 
they  are  filled  with  chyle.  In  the  interval  of  digestion,  they 
convey  lymph  like  the  other  lymphatics. 

300.  The  LYMPHATIC  GLANDS  through  which  the  vessels 
pass  are  somewhat  hard,  pinkish  bodies,  varying  in  size  from 
that  of  a  hemp-seed  to  that  of  a  large  pea. 

301.  The  LYMPHATIC  VESSELS   are   distributed  through 
most  of  the  system.    Few  are  found  in  the  muscles,  and  none 
in  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  though  they  doubtless  exist  there. 
They  abound  in  the  secreting  membranes,  especially  in  the 
skin  and  the  mucous  membrane. 

The  finer  lymphatics  unite  into  trunks,  which  either  accom- 
pany the  blood-vessels  and  form  the  deep  lymphatics,  or  run 
on  the  surface  of  organs  or  in  the  sub-areolar  tissue,  forming 
superficial  lymphatics.  From  all  parts  of  the  body,  these 
trunks  run  toward  the  root  of  the  neck  and  unite  in  two 
main  trunks  which  end  in  the  venous  system,  viz.,  the  Tho- 
racic and  Lymphatic  Ducts. 

The  lymphatics  of  the  lower  limbs  of  the  abdomen,  of  the 
left  side  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  of  the  left  upper  limb, 
form  the  Thoracic  Duct ;  those  of  the  right  side  of  the  head 
and  neck,  and  right  upper  limb,  form  the  Lymphatic  Duct. 

302.  The  THORACIC  DUCT  commences  with  a  dilatation, 
named  the  "  Receptaculum  Chyli,"  or  receptacle  of  the  chyle. 
This  vessel  is  formed  by  the  convergence  of  lymphatics  from 
the  lower  extremities,  the  intestines,  stomach,  spleen,  pan- 
creas, kidneys  and  the  greater  part  of  the  liver.    The  "  recep- 
taculum  chyli"  is  usually  placed  upon  the  second  lumbar 
vertebra,  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  aorta  (329).     It  soon 
passes  behind  the  arch  of  that  vessel,  crossing  over  the  oeso- 
phagus, and  ascends  on  the  left  side  to  the  root  of  the  neck, 
where  it  curves  downward  and  outward  behind  the  great 
blood-vessels,  and  finally  opens  into  the  angle  at  the  junction 
of  two  large  veins  (330). 

303.  The  LYMPHATIC  DUCT  is  about  an  inch  long,  and 
has  a  similar  termination  on  the  right  side  of  the  body. 

304.  Ths  lymphatic  glands  are  found  in  the  axilla  of  the 


ABSORPTION. 


141 


FIG.  96. 


Fio.  96  (Leidy).  VIEW  OF  THE  GREAT  LYM- 
PHATIC TRUNKS.— 1,  2,  Thoracic  duct.  4,  The 
right  lymphatic  duct.  5,  Lymphatics  of  the 
thigh.  6,  Iliac  lymphatics.  7,  Lumber  lym- 
phatics. 8,  Intercostal  lymphatics,  a,  Supe- 
rior cava..  b,  Loft  innominate  vein.  c.  Right 
innominate  vein,  d,  Aorta,  e,  Inferior  cava. 


arm  (arm-pit)  and  in  the 
groins ;  chains  of  glands  are 
found  on  each  side  of  the 
neck ;  a  few  in  the  arm  ;  also 
many  about  the  bronchi,  or 
air-tubes;  and  in  the  pelvis 
or  abdomen ; — those  of  the 
lacteals  being  abundant  in 
the  Mes'entery* 

305.  The  veins  of  the  in- 
testines acting  as  absorbents 
unite  with  those  coming  from 
the  stomach,  the  spleen  and 
the    pancreas,   thus    forming 
the  Portal  vein,  which  enters 
the  liver  through  a  fissure  in 
the  concave  surface. 

\  26.  HISTOLOGY  OF  THE  AB- 
SORBENTS. —  Histology  of  the 
Lymphatic  Vessel*  —  Glands. 
Origin  of  the  Lymphatics. 

306.  Most    of   the    LYM- 
PHATIC   VESSELS   are   long, 
thread-like,  transparent  tubes, 
with  coats  so  exceedingly  deli- 
cate that  their  structure  is  a 
matter  of  inference  from  that 
of  the  Thoracic  Duct,  which 
has  three  coats,  like  the  veins. 
The     external     coat    is    the 
thickest,  and  consists  of  white 
fibrous  tissue,  with  longitudi- 
nal webs  of  elastic  tissue ;  the 
middle   coat   consists  of  un- 
striated  muscular,  elastic  and 
connective  tissues ;  the  inter- 


Gr.,  raesos,  middle,  and  enteron,  the  intestine. 


142 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY    AND   HYGIENE. 


nal  coat,  of  a  lining  epithelium,  an  elastic  basement  mem- 
brane, supported  by  longitudinal  laminse  of  elastic  tissue. 
The  larger  lymphatic  tubes  are  liberally  supplied  with  valves 
formed  by  the  infolding  of  the  inner  coat.  These  valves  are 
arranged  in  pairs,  and  are  much  more  numerous  in  the 
smaller  than  in  the  larger  vessels.  In  the  thoracic  duct,  they 
are  sometimes  more  than  an  inch  apart.  A  very  strong  pair 
is  placed  at  the  opening  of  the  thoracic  duct  into  the  large 


veins. 


FIG.  97.        FIG.  98. 


FIG.  99. 


Fio.  97.  A  SINGLE  LYMPHATIC  VESSEL,  much  magnified. 

FIG.  98.  THE  VALVES  of  a  lymphatic  trunk. 

FIG.  99.  1,  A  LYMPHATIC  GLAND,  with  several  vessels  passing  through  it. 

307.  The  LYMPHATIC  GLANDS  are  not  well  understood. 
They  seem  to  be  composed  of  a  large  number  of  vesicles,  or 
pouches,  which  communicate  with  each  other  and  also  with 
the  lymphatic  tubes.     The  tubes,  or  vessels,  entering  the 
gland,  are  called  afferent  vessels,  and  those  emerging  from  it, 
efferent  vessels.     Each  vesicle  of  the  gland  seems  to  connect 
with  an  afferent  and  an  efferent  vessel. 

308.  The  lymphatics  are  of  such  tenuity  and  transparency, 
it  is  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  they  can  be  discovered, 


ABSORPTION.  143 

hence,  their  origin  is  imperfectly  known.  They  appear  to 
originate  in  a  capillary  network  among  the  sanguiferous 
capillaries,  but  not  to  communicate  with  them.  The  lacteals 
originate  in  the  villi  of  the  intestines,  and  unite  more  and 
more  till  their  entrance  into  the  receptaculum  chyli. 

309.  The  LYMPH  consists  of  a  fluid  part  containing  nuclei, 
minute  granules,  and  sometimes  a  few  oily  globules. 

$  37.  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  ABSORBENTS. — Chemical   Changes  in  the 
Absorbent  System — In  the  Portal  Circulation. 

.  310.  We  know  little  of  the  chemical  changes  which  take 
place  in  the  absorbent  system ;  but  the  chyle  drawn  from  the 
large  absorbent  trunks  near  their  entrance  into  the  "  recepta- 
culum chyli"  is  very  different  from  that  just  absorbed  by  the 
lacteals.  During  its  passage  through  these  vessels  and  their 
glands  it  undergoes  important  alterations,  assimilating  it  to 
the  blood. 

311.  The  following  table,  by  Carpenter,  gives  the  relative 
proportions  of  the  three  chief  ingredients  of  the  chyle  in 
different  parts  of  the  absorbent  system. 

In  the  afferent  lacteals,  from  the  intestines  to  the  mesen- 
teric  glands : 

Fat  in  maximum  quantity  (numerous  fat  or  oil-globules). 
Albumen  in  medium  quantity. 
Chyle-corpuscles,  few  or  none. 
Fibrin  almost  entirely  wanting. 

In  the  efferent  lacteals,  from  the  mesenteric  gland  to  the 
Thoracic  Duct : 

Fat  in  medium  quantity. 

Albumen  in  maximum  quantity. 

Chyle-corpuscles  very  numerous,  but  imperfectly  developed. 

Fibrin  in  medium  quantity. 

In  the  Thoracic  Duct : 

Fat  in  minimum  quantity  (few  or  no  oil-globules). 
Albumen  in  medium  quantity. 

Chyle-corpuscles  numerous,  and  more  distinctly  cellular. 
Fibrin  in  maximum  quantity. 


144          ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

312.  In  the  portal  circulation,  soon  after  the  absorbed  sub- 
stances are  introduced  into  the  blood,  and  come  in  contact 
with   its   organic   ingredients,  they  become   converted  into 
other  substances ;  the  albuminose   is  in  part  changed   into 
blood-albumen,  a  substance  very  different  from  albuminose 
or  the  original  albumen.     There  is  also  probably  some  fibrin, 
while  the  sugar  rapidly  decomposes,  losing  its  characteristic 
properties.     The  contents  of  the  portal  vein  undergo  changes 
iu  the  liver  before  being  taken  up  by  the  hepatic  vein,  but 
these  are  not  well  understood;  arriving  at  the  entrance  of 
the    general    circulation,   these   newly-absorbed   ingredients 
have  already  become  measurably  assimilated  to  those  pre- 
viously existing  in  the  blood. 

§  28.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  ABSORBENTS. — Office  of  the  Lymphatics. 
Absorbent  Power  of  Different  Tissues.  Absorption  in  cases  of  Disease. 
Imbibition  of  Animal  Membranes. 

313.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  office  of  the  LYM- 
PHATICS was  excretive — that  of  conveying  from  the  system 
portions  of  waste  matter  no  longer  of  use ;  but  as  these  ves- 
sels are  found  to  commence  most  frequently  in  tissues  where 
nutritive  changes  are  few — as  there  is  a  conformity  in  the 
nature  of  the  fluids,  chyle  and  lymph,  the  chief  difference 
being  due  to  the  presence  of  fat,  and  a  large  proportion  of 
albumen  in  the  chyle — as  the  two  fluids  are  conveyed  into 
the  general  current  of  circulation,  just  before  the  blood  is 
again  transmitted  into  the  system  at  large — the  almost  in- 
evitable inference  is,  that  lymph,  like  chyle,  is  a  nutritious 
fluid.     There  is  much  evidence  that  the  lymph  is  obtained 
from  the  blood,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  lymphatics 
take  up  those  crude  materials  which  were  absorbed  directly 
by  the  veins  and  subject  them  to  an  assimilating  agency, 
resembling  that  acting  upon  the  nutritive  substances  in  the 
lacteals. 

314.  The  office  of  the  lymphatics  may  also  include  an- 
other, assimilation.     Disintegration  of  the  tissues  is  every- 
where taking  place.  Every  respiration,  every  heart-beat,  every 


ABSORPTION.  145 

muscular  movement,  every  thought,  is  produced  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  life  of  some  of  the  tissues ;  but,  says  Carpenter, 
"  The  death  of  the  tissues  by  no  means  involves  their  imme- 
diate and  complete  destruction;  and  there  seems  no  more 
reason  why  an  animal  should  not  derive  support  from  its 
own  dead  past,  than  the  dead  body  of  another  individual. 
Whilst,  therefore,  the  matter  that  has  undergone  too  com- 
plete a  disintegration  to  be  again  employed  as  nutrient  mate- 
rial is  carried  off  by  the  excretory  process,  that  portion  which 
is  capable  of  being  again  assimilated  may  be  taken  up  by 
the  lymphatic  system."  This  whole  lymphatic  system  may 
be  looked  upon  as  one  great  assimilating  or  blood-making 
gland. 

315.  Different  membranes  have  different  absorbent  powers, 
and  the  power  of  the  same  membrane  varies  with  change  of 
condition.     The  most  active  is  the  mucous  membrane ;  thus, 
in  the  alimentary  canal,  it  takes  up  a  large  portion  of  the 
food  ;  in  the  lungs  it  absorbs  gases  in  a  state  of  solution.     In 
this  way  are  introduced  into  the  system  miasmatic  and  con- 
tagious exhalations.     Fine,  solid  particles  are  sometimes  ab- 
sorbed, as  arsenic.    Instances  of  poisoning  are  not  uncommon 
among  manufacturers  of  artificial  flowers  and  green  paper- 
hangings,  arsenite  of  copper  or  "  Scheele's  green"  being  em- 
ployed in  the  coloring. 

316.  Though   much   impeded   by  the   cuticle,  absorption 
takes  place  to  a  considerable  extent  through  the  skin,  and 
the  use  of  medicinal  baths  is  based  on  this  fact ;  shipwrecked 
sailors,  destitute  of  fresh  water,  find  that  thirst  is  relieved  by 
immersing  the  body  in  salt  water.     Life  is  sometimes  sup- 
ported for  a  time  by  immersing  the  patient  in  baths  of  milk 
or  broth. 

317.  In  serous  and  synovial  membranes,  the  fluids  poured 
out  into  the  joint  in  rheumatism  and  other  inflammations  are 
absorbed.    Absorption  is  shown  in  areolar  tissue,  as  in  taking 
up  dropsical  fluids ;  also  by  sub-cutaneous  injections  of  a  solu- 
tion of  morphia,  to  relieve  suffering  from  neuralgic  pain,  from 
severe  operations,  obstinate  cough  and  other  irritations. 

13  G 


146  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

Observations. — 1st,  In  cases  of  disease,  where  no  food  is 
taken  into  the  stomach,  life  is  maintained  by  the  absorption 
of  fat.  In  consumption,  even  the  muscles  and  more  solid 
parts  of  the  body  are  absorbed.  2d,  Animals  living  in  a 
half-torpid  state  during  winter,  derive  their  nourishment 
from  the  same  source. 

318.  There  are  no  visible  openings  in  the  membranes  for 
the  passage  of  these  absorbable  substances,  but  their  entrance 
seems  to  be  effected  by  a  peculiar  action  of  animal  mem- 
branes which  enables  certain  fluids  to  pass  directly  through 
them  by  a  kind  of  imbibition,  a  process  called  endosmo'sis.* 

\  39.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  ABSORBENTS. — Conditions  of  Air  affecting 
Absorption.  Effect  of  Nutritious  Food.  Effect  of  the  Removal  of  the 
Outide. 

319.  The  air  should  be  as  free  as  possible  from  impure  vapors 
and  gases;    hence  the  importance  of  thorough  ventilation, 
especially  in  the  sleeping-room,  since  exhalations  from  the 
system  are  greater  at  night  than  by  day. 

Observation. — In  infectious  diseases,  the  impure  air  should 
be  constantly  carried  from  the  room,  and  the  nurse  should  be 
careful  to  avoid  the  infected  air,  approaching  the  patient  on 
the  side  in  which  the  currents  of  air  are  admitted. 

320.  Moisture  increases  the  activity  of  the  absorbents ;  hence, 
persons  living  in  marshy  districts  contract  miasmatic  and 
contagious  diseases  more  readily  than  those  living  in  a  drier 
atmosphere.     In  such  localities  the  house  should  be  plenti- 
fully supplied  with  fresh  air,  and  kept  dry  by  the  use  of  fires. 
Especially  is  this  necessary  morning  and  evening,  in  spring 
and  autumn,  and  often  in  summer. 

Observation. — For  the  above  reason,  the  air  of  the  sick- 
room should  be  kept  dry,  otherwise  the  poisonous  exhalations 
are  absorbed  by  the  lungs  and  skin,  both  of  the  patient  and 
of  the  nurse. 

321.  Nutritious  food  lessens  the  activity  of  the  absorbents; 

*  Gr.,  endon,  within,  and  osmos,  impulse. 


ABSORPTION.  147 

hence,  in  cases  of  infectious  diseases,  due  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  food  of  the  attendants  and  of  the  family.  Some 
persons  use  alcoholic  stimulants  or  tobacco,  "to  prevent 
taking  disease,"  but  these  increase  the  activity  of  the  ab- 
sorbents, and  the  liability  to  contract  disease.  A  moderate 
amount  of  nutritious  food  will  be  more  efficacious. 

322.  In  handling  poisons,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  cuticle 
be  unbroken,  as  absorption  is  very  rapid  when  the  skin  is 
removed.  In  contagious  diseases,  if  the  skin  is  broken,  it 
should  be  covered  with  adhesive  plaster  while  at  work  over 
the  patient.  In  handling  dead  bodies,  it  is  well  to  lubricate 
the  hands  with  olive-oil  or  lard.  The  absorption  of  poisonous 
matter  through  a  slight  "scratch"  or  puncture  of  the  cuticle, 
as  the  removal  of  a  "  hang  nail,"  has  cost  several  valuable 
lives. 


COMMON .CAOOTIO  flRT£Rr~ 

WOULfift  VEIN 

INTERNAL  JUGULAR  VEIN 
CLAVICLE 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

THE  CIRCULATION. 

2  3O.  The,  Blood.     Composition  of  the  Blood.    Relation  of  the  Absorbent 
System  to  the  Blood. 

323.  As  the  contents  of  the  absorbent  vessels  enter  the 
blood-vessels,  they  undergo  their  last  complete  change  into 
that  remarkable  fluid,  the  blood,  which  contains  all  the  mate- 
rials for  the  support  of  every  part  of  the  animal  fabric. 

The  blood  ^onsjsjsj)£^,Ho,uidportion  jiamed  liquor  san- 
g^wvnM,JJ^^  which  holds  in  sus- 

pension multitudes  of  mmute^circular  bjdiesTcljjIecl  blood^ 
^coTpusclesTTnes^lir^oftwo  kinds,  the  white,  or  colorless, 
anrftne  red  ;  the  latter  are  so  minute  that  no  less  than  one 
hundred  millions  are  said  to  exist  in  a  single  drop  of  blood  ; 
the  red  color  is  due  to  their  accumulation,  as,  when  in  thin 
layers,  they  appear  yellowish.  They  contain  only  a  slightly 
colored  fluid,  while  the  white  corpuscles  have,  in  addition,  a 
nucleus  and  indistinct  granules. 

324.  The  blood  is  constantly  undergoing  loss,  from  supply- 
ing material  for  the  secretions,  for  nutritive  changes  in  the 
solid  tissues,  and  also  in  the  blood  itself. 

Observation.  —  The  French  call  blood  "  chair  coulant,"  run- 
ning fleshy  and  with  reason,  since  it  not  only  contains  the 
same  constituents  as  flesh,  but  one-fifth  of  its  weight  is  solid 
matter. 

325.  In  order  that  this  blood  with  its  cargo  of  supplies 
should  fulfill  its  mission  of  nutrition,  it  must  be  kept  con- 
stantly moving  in  a  circuit,  including  every  part  of  the  body; 
this  movement  is  called  its 


through  the  jgear^andjhe  Blood-vessels,  which  ^consist  of  the 
\rteme^Uapillaries  and  Veins. 

13*  149 


150  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 


§  31.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS. — Construction  of  the 
Heart.  The  Arteries,  Veins  and  Capillaries,  and  their  Relation  to  each 
other.  The  Aorta  and  its  Divisions.  Arrangement  of  the  Veins. 

326.  The  HEART  is  a  hollow  muscle  enclosed  in  a  sac, 
named  Pericardium*     In  the   male  its  proportion  to  the 
body  is  about  1  to  169 ;  in  the  female,  about  1  to  149.     The 
heart  is  cone-like  in  shape,  whence  its  triple  division  into 
base,  body  and  apex.     Its  length  is  about  five  inches,  and  its 
basal  diameter  about  four  inches.     It  is  everywhere  free  or 
unattached  excepting  at  the  base,  which  by  means  of  the 
large  blood-vessels  is  joined  to  the  vertebral  column,  reach- 
ing from  the  region  of  the  fourth  dorsal  vertebra  to  the 
eighth.     The  apex  is  directed  downward,  forward  and  to  the 
left,  pointing  to  the  junction  of  the  fifth  rib  with  its  cartilage. 
The  interior  of  the  heart  is  divided  by  a  longitudinal  mus- 
cular septum,  or  wall,  into  two  chambers,  named  the  right 
and  the  left  chamber ;  each  of  these  is  divided  by  a  trans- 
verse constriction  into  two  apartments,  named  the  Au'ricle^ 
and  the  Ven'tricle ;  the  auricle  occupying  the  basal  end  of 
the  organ,  and  the  ventricles  the  body  and  apex.     There  are 
virtually  two  hearts  placed  side  by  side,  having  no  communi- 
cation with  each  other  and  differing  in  function.     The  right 
division  is  sometimes  called  the  pulmonic  heart,  and  the  left 
the  systemic  heart. 

327.  The  ARTERIES  are  firm,   membranous,   cylindrical 
tubes,"  arising  from  the  ventricles  of  the  heart  by  two  trunks; 
that  from  the  left  ventricle,  named  the  Aorta,  is  the  systemic 
trunk;  and  that  from  the  right  ventricle,  named  the  Pul- 
monic artery,  is  the  pulmonic  trunk. 

The  systemic  trunk,  or  aorta,  divides  and  subdivides  into 
finer  and  finer  arteries,  like  the  branches  from  the  trunk 
of  a  tree,  excepting  that  these  branches  communicate  with 
each  other  in  a  finer  network,  till  the  ultimate  ramifications, 
too  minute  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  extend  to  every 

*  Gr.,  peri,  about,  and  kardia,  heart.  f  Lat.,  auris,  an  ear. 


THE   CIRCULATION.  151 

nook  and  corner  and  atom  of  the  body.   These  final  branches 
are  called  Capillaries. 

arteries  with  the  beginning jaf  Jihe  veins,  so  that  it  is  impos- 


e_ejnng^  t 

the  vein  begins. 


FIG.  101.  FIG.  102. 


FIG.  101.  A  FRONT  VIEW  OP  THE  HEART.—!,  The  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  2,  The 
left  auricle.  3,  The  right  ventricle.  4,  The  left  ventricle.  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  Vessels 
through  which  the  blood  passes  to  and  from  the  heart. 

FIG.  102.  A  BACK  VIEW  OF  THE  HEART.—!,  The  right  auricle.  2,  The  left  auricle.  3, 
The  right  ventricle.  4,  The  left  ventricle.  5,  6,  7,  The  vessels  that  carry  the  blood  to 
and  from  the  heart.  9, 10,  11,  The  vessels  of  the  heart. 

328.  The  VEINS  thus  commencing  with  the  capillaries 
unite  into  larger  and  larger  veins,  converging  toward  the 
heart,  like  the  branches  of  a  tree  toward  its  trunk,  till  the 
final  union  in  two  trunks  (the  ascending  and  descending 
Vense  Cavse),  that  connect  with  the  right  auricle  of  the 
heart.  The  aorta  and  cavse  constitute  the  large  vessels  of 
the  Systemic,  or  general  circulation.  The  Pulmonic,  or 
lesser  circulation  from  the  right  ventricle  through  the  lungs 
to  the  left  auricle,  has  a  similar  set  of  vessels;  the  trunk 
leaving  the  right  ventricle  is  named  the  Pulmonie  artery,  and 
corresponds  to  the  aorta ;  those  trunks  conveying  the  blood 
to  the  left  auricle  and  corresponding  to  the  venae  cavae,  are 
named  the  Pulmonary  veins. 


152 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 


FIG.  103. 


FIG.  103  (Le,idy).  THE  AORTA.—!,  Arch  of 
the  aorta.  2,  Thoracic  aorta.  3,  Abdominal 
aorta.  4,  Innominate  artery.  5,  Right  com- 
mon carotid.  6,  Right  subcJavian.  7,  Left 
common  carotid.  8,  Left  subclavian.  9,  Bron- 
chial arti-ry,  a  small  branch  of  the  aorta.  10, 
OSsophageal  arteries.  11,  Intercostal  arteries 
of  the  right  side;  12,  of  the  left  side.  15, 
Coronary  artery.  16,  Splenic  artery.  17, 
Hepatic  artery.  18,  Superior  mesenteric 
artery.  19,  Supra-renal  arteries.  21,  Infe- 
rior mesenteric  artery.  22,  Lumbar  arteries. 
23,  Common  iliac  arteries.  24,  Middle  sacral 
artery,  a,  Aortic  orifice  of  the  diaphragm. 
b,  Articulation  of  the  head  of  the  ribs,  c, 
Anterior  scalene  muscle. 


329.  The  AORTA  springs 
from  the  left  ventricle  of  the 
heart,  is  about  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  is  the  main 
trunk  of  the  arterial  system, 
supplying  pure  blood  to 
every  part  of  the  body.  It 
is  divided  into  the  arch, 
the  thoracic  and  abdominal 
aorta.  The  Arch  ascends 
from  the  heart,  slightly  in- 
clines toward  the  right  side, 
curves  obliquely  backward 
to  the  left  side,  and  descends 
to  the  left  side  of  the  third 
dorsal  vertebra,  where  it  be- 
comes the  Thoracic  Aorta. 
The  arch  gives  off  main 
branches  as  follows:  the 
right  and  left  Coronary  ar- 
teries, whose  branches  ramify 
upon  the  walls  of  the  heart ; 
the  three  trunks  going  to  the 
head  -and  upper  extremities ; 
viz.,  the  right  Carotid  and 
right  Subclavian  and  the  In- 
nominata  trunk,  which  soon 
divides  into  the  left  Carotid 
and  left  Subclavian  arteries. 

330.  The  THORACIC  AORTA 
commencing  with  the  termi- 
nation of  the  arch,  descends 
at  the  left  of  the  vertebral 
column,  gradually  inclining 
toward  the  median  line, 
which  it  nearly  reaches  oppo- 
site the  last  dorsal  vertebra, 


THE   CIRCULATION.  153 

where  it  passes  through  the  diaphragm  and  becomes  the 
abdominal  aorta.  The  thoracic  division  gives  off  branches 
to  the  lungs,  pericardium,  oesophagus,  lymphatic  glands,  the 
intercostal,  pectoral  and  serrated  muscles,  also  those  of  the 
back. 

331.  The  ABDOMINAL  AORTA  inclines  a  little  to  the  left, 
gives  off  branches  to  the  liver,  stomach,  spleen,  pancreas, 
kidneys  and  to  the  abdominal  muscles.     Opposite  the  fourth 
lumbar  vertebra,  it  divides  into  two  large  trunks,  called  the 
common  Iliacs.     These  subdivide  into  two  branches,  called 
the  external  and  internal  Iliac  arteries.     The  continuation 
of  the  external  iliac  when  it  reaches  the  groin,  is  named  the 
Femoral  artery,  which  passes  down  the  groove  of  the  thigh 
between  the  extensor  and  adductor  muscles ;    after  passing 
through  the  tendon  of  the  great  adductor  muscle  it  is  called 
the  Popliteal  artery,  which  divides  into  the  anterior  and  pos- 
terior tibial  arteries,  the  latter  providing  the  fibular  artery 
and   various    branches    sent  to   several   parts   of   the   foot 
and  toes. 

332.  The  carotid  arteries  are  divided  into  two  branches, 
the  external  and  the  internal ;  the  former  giving  off  branches 
to  the  face  and  head,  excepting  the  brain  and  orbits,  which 
are  supplied  by  the  latter.     The  subclavian  arteries  furnish 
branches  to  the  brain,  spinal  cord  and  membranes,  the  ears, 
pleura,  and  various  muscles  of  the  back  and  neck.     The 
extension  of  the  subclavian  artery  is  called  the  brachial  in 
the  inner  and  fore  part  of  the  arm ;  the  two  main  branches 
of  the  brachial  extending  down   the   fore-arm   are   named 
the  radial,  at  the  anterior  and  outer  part  of  the  fore-arm, 
and  the  ulna,  situated  at  the  anterior  and  inner  part  of  the 
fore-arm.     The  radial  artery  toward  the  wrist  runs  near  the 
surface,  being  covered  only  by  the   fascia  and  skin.     We 
learn  the  condition  of  the  general  circulation  by  its  throb- 
bings,   which   we  call   the  pulse.      The  radial   and   ulnar 
arteries  divide  and  subdivide  into  the  vaiious  carpal,  pal- 
mar  and   digital   ramifications,   supplying  the  wrist,  hand 
and  fingers. 


154  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

*  FIG.  104. 


FIG.  104  (Leidy).  LEFT  COMMON  CAROTID  DIVIDING  INTO  THE  EXTERNAL  AND  INTERNAL 
CAROTID  ARTERIES. — 1,  Common  carotid  artery.  2,  Internal  carotid.  3,  External  carotid. 
4,  Superior  thyroid.  5,  Lingual.  6,  Pharyngeal  artery.  7,  Facial.  8,  Inferior  palatine 
and  tonsillar  arteries.  9,  Submaxillary.  10,  Submental.  11,  Occipital.  12,  Posterior 
auricular.  13,  Parotid  branches.  14,  Internal  maxillary.  15,  Temporal  artery.  16, 
Subclavian  artery.  17,  Axillary.  18,  Vertebral  artery.  19,  Thyroid  axis.  20,  Inferior 
thyroid  giving  off  the  ascending  cervical.  21,  Transverse  cervical.  22,  Supra-scapular. 
23,  Internal  mammary  artery. 


333.  The  VEINS  are  arranged  in  two  sets — the  superficial 
and  the  deep-seated ;  the  former  lie  immediately  under  the 
skin,  possessing  no  corresponding  arteries;  the  deep-seated 
veins  directly  attend  the  arteries,  and  usually  take  the 
same  name.  The  largest  arteries  have  one  venous  trunk ; 
the  medium-sized  have  two,  called  vence  comites.  The  veins 
unite  into  eight  trunks  with  their  branches;  the  coronary 
vein  receives  the  blood  from  the  walls  of  the  heart,  and  con- 
veys it  to  the  right  auricle ;  the  Superior  Vena  Cava  derives 


THE    CIRCTJLATTQX. 


155 


its  branches  from  the  head, 
neck,  upper  extremities  and 
walls  of  the  thorax.  It  termi- 
nates at  the  upper  back  part 
of  the  right  auricle  of  the 
heart. 

The  Inferior  Vena  Cava  col- 
lects the  blood  from  the  lower 
extremities,  pelvis  and  abdo- 
men, and  terminates  in  the 
right  auricle. 

The  Portal  vein  is  a  short 
trunk  about  three  inches  in 
length,  derived  from  the  con- 
vergence of  the  veins  of  the 
stomach,  spleen,  pancreas  and 
intestines  ;  this  passes  into  the 
liver,  where  it  divides  and 
subdivides,  being  distributed 
throughout  the  organ.  This 
blood,  with  that  of  the  hepatic 
artery,  is  returned  to  the  gene- 
ral circulation  by  the  hepatic 
veins  (244). 

The  Pulmonary  veins  art 
four  in  number,  two  for  each 
lung.  They  commence  with 
the  capillaries  of  the  lungs, 
and  converge  till  a  single  trunk 
is  formed  for  each  lobe,  or 
three  trunks  for  the  right  lung 
and  two  for  the  left;  but  the 

trunk    from  the  middle  lobe  of 


FIG.  105  (LeMy).  VEINS  OF  THE  THORAX 


the    right    lung  joins  that    from     AND  AKDOMMI.-I,  Inferior  cava.  2,  right, 

3,  Left  renal  veins.    4,  Superior  cava.     5, 

the   upper   lobe   of    the   same 


side*  and  the  four  mouths  dis- 
charge into  the  four  angles  of 


Right,  6,  Left  innominate  veins.  7,  In- 
ternal veins.  8,  External  jugular  veins. 
9,  Subclavian  vein.  10,  Azygos  vein. 


156 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


the  left  auricle.     The  pulmonary  veins  perform  the  function 
of  arteries,  as  they  convey  pure  blood. 


FIG.  106. 


FIG.  106  (Leidy).  THE  PORTAL  SYSTEM  OF  VEINS. — a,  Portal  vein.  6,  Splenic  vein. 
c,  Right  gastro-epiploic  vein,  d,  Inferior  mesenteric  vein,  e,  Superior  mesenteric  vein. 
/,  Trunk  of  the  superior  mesenteric  artery.  1,  Liver.  2,  Stomach.  3,  Spleen.  4,  Pan- 
creas. 5,  Duodenum.  6,  Ascending  colon  :  the  transverse  colon  is  removed.  7,  Small 
intestine.  8,  Descending  colon. 


32.  HISTOLOGY  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS.—  The  Pericardium 
and  Endocardium.  The  Valves  of  the  Heart.  The  Muscular  Struc- 
ture of  the  Heart.  The  Coats  of  the  Arteries—Of  the  Veins—  Of  the 


^  The  fibrous  layer 

the  heart,  being  connected  only  at  the 


THE  CIRCULATION. 


157 


base,  from  which  it  embraces  the  several  blood-vessels  and 
becomes  continuous  with  their  external  coats.  The  serous 
layer  closely  invests  the  heart  and  also  the  great  blood-ves- 
sels at  its  base,  from  which  it  is  reflected  to  line  the  fibrous 
layer  of  the  pericardium. 


FIG.  108. 


FIG.  107. 


14 


FIG.  107.  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  HEART,  WITH  ITS  INVESTMENT.— 1, 1,  Right  and  left  auricles. 
2,  2,  Right  and  left  ventricles.  3,  4,  Pericardium.  5,  Pulmonary  artery.  6,  Aorta. 

FIG.  108.  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  HEART  AND  VALVES.—!,  Descending  vena  cava  (vein).  2, 
Ascending  vena  cava  (vein).  3,  Right  auricle.  4,  Opening  between  the  right  auricle 
and  the  right  ventricle.  5,  Right  ventricle.  6,  Tricuspid  valves.  7,  Pulmonary  artery. 
8,  8,  Branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery  that  pass  to  the  right  and  left  lung.  9,  Semi- 
lunar  valves  of  the  pulmonary  artery.  10,  Septum  between  the  two  ventricles  of  the 
heart.  11, 11,  Pulmonary  veins.  12,  Left  auricle.  13,  Opening  between  the  left  auricle 
and  ventricle.  14,  Left  ventricle.  15,  Mitral  valves.  16,  16,  Aorta.  17,  Semilunar 
valves  of  the  aorta. 

335.  The  ENDOCARDIUM,  or  lining  membrane  of  the  heart, 
is  a  thin,  Jran^l?ejit'jngm^^  thejnner 

coats  of  the  blood-vessels.     It  consists  of  an  epithelium,  an 

exceedingly  thin  basement  membrane  and  a  fibro-elastic  layer 
closely  adherent  to  the  general  muscular  structure  beneath. 
At  the  opening  between  the  auricles  and  ventricles,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  aorta  and  of  the  pulmonary  artery, 
the  fibro-elastic  tissue  forms  four  rings,  sometimes  called 
fibrous  zones.  It  also  forms  valves  by  its  little  folds,  en- 
closing muscular  fibres.  Those  at  the  openings  of  the  aorta 
and  the  pulmonary  artery  are  named,  from  their  shape,  Semi- 
te 


158 


ANATOMY   PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


lunar  valves.     They  form  complete  pockets,  three  in  number, 

and  have  a  triangular  arrangement  about  the  orifices.     Be- 

hind each  of  these  valves  is  a  cavity,  or  pouch,  in  the  artery. 

336.  Between^  thg  auricl^  ^.aymi^y^njgii^ffAJK6  Calves  also 


from 


whosejfloating  edge  small  jwh^e  Coords  (chordae  tendinse")  pass 
to  some  of  the  columnse  carnse,  thus  preventing  the  edge 
from  being  carried  into  the  auricle.  Qn^  ^the  j-ijht^side  arc 


three  valves  formed  of  three  folds  of  membrane, 


FIG.  109. 


FIG.  110. 


FIG.  109.  SPIRAL  and  involuted  arrangement  of  the  fibres  of  the  heart. 
FIG.  110.  GYRATION  of  the  fibres  of  the  heart  at  the  apex. 

337.  The  muscular  structure  of  the  heart  is  based  upon  the 
four  fibrous  zones,  which  furnish  a  point  of  departure  for 
most  of  the  muscular  fibres  in  the  ventricles.  Those  of  the 
auricles  and  of  the  ventricles  are  quite  independent  of  each 
other.  The  crossing  fibres  form  networks  arranged  in  three 
circular  laminae,  the  superficial,  middle  and  internal.  The 
superficial  fibres  commence  at  the  base,  and  pursue  a  spiral 
course  to  the  apex ;  those  of  the  right  side,  running  from 
right  to  left ;  those  of  the  left  side,  from  left  to  right.  These 
two  spiral  sets  encircle  the  apex  and  cross  each  other  some- 
what like  the  lines  in  the  figure  8,  thus  forming  a  remark- 


THE  CIRCULATION. 

able  whorl,  called  the  vortex.  They  do  not  stop  here,  but 
pass  inward  and  turn  upward  to  the  auriculo-ventricular 
fibrous  rings  from  whence  they  started,  forming  the  deep- 
seated  layer,  or  the  true  walls  of  the  ventricles  with  their 
fleshy  columns ;  hence  the  deep-seated  and  superficial  layers 
are  continuous  muscles.  Between  these  two  layers  is  the 
middle  stratum  of  fibres,  more  or  less  circular,  forming  a 
truncated  cone,  with  its  base  corresponding  to  the  auriculo- 
ventricular  orifice. 

338.  The  muscular  fibres  of  the  auricles  consist  of  a  super- 
ficial set  investing  the  anterior  portion  of  both  auricles,  and  a 
deep-seated  layer  which  in  the  left  auricle  constitutes  a  network 
of  circular  and  oblique  fibres,  all  traceable  to  the  auriculo- 
ventricular  orifice,  around  which  they  form  sphincter  muscles. 
The  corresponding  fibres  of  the  right  auricle  intersect  each 
other,  and  are  traceable  to  the  corresponding  orifice. 

339.  'yhe^ARTERiES  have  comparative]^  fiftic^f  "'ftllfli  rnm- 
posed  of  three  COSL\S  continjiong  wi^h  the  endocardium  and 
the  fibrous  coat  of  the  pericardium.     The  external  coat  is 
chiefly  of  white  fibrous  tissue,  with  the  spiral  fibres  crossing 
each  other  from  opposite  sides  of  the  vessel.     This  coat  is 
quite  thin  in  the  aorta  and  larger  trunks;  it  forms  about 
half  the  thickness  of  the  walls  in  the  medium-sized  vessels, 
and  disappears  entirely  in  the  smaller  vessels.     The  middle 
coat  is  thick  in  the  large  arteries,  and  gradually  becomes 
thinner  till  its  disappearance  before  reaching  the  capillaries. 
This  coat  is,  in  the  large  trunks,  chiefly  composed  of  elastic 
tissue  with  some  muscular  fibres ;  in  the  smaller  vessels,  of 
muscular  tissue  with  few  elastic  fibres.     The  inner  coat  is 
thinnest  and  most  elastic ;  like  the  endocardium,  it  has  an 
epithelium,  a  basement  membrane  and  a  layer  of  connective 
elastic  tissue.     The  latter  is  intimately  connected  with  the 
middle  coat. 

340.  The  VEINS  are  constructed,  in  general,  like  the  ar- 
teries, but  their  coats  are  much  thinner.     Many  of  the  larger 
veins,  particularly  in  the  limbs,  have  crescent-shaped  valves, 
usually  arranged  in  pairs  and  opposite  each  other.    These  are 


160  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

formed  by  the  doublings  of  the  lining  membrane,  strengthened 
with  intervening  fibre-elastic  tissue.  Behind  each  valve  there 
is  a  dilatation  of  the  vein,  forming  a  little  pouch.  The  pul- 
monary veins  have  no  valves :  the  same  is  true  of  the  vense 
cavse,  the  portal  vein  and  its  branches,  the  hepaticse,  renal 
and  spinal  veins,  and  most  of  those  of  the  head  and  neck ; 
they  are  more  abundant  in  the  lower  than  in  the  upper  ex- 
tremities. The  walls  of  both  arteries  and  veins  are  furnished 
with  nutritive  vessels  and  with  nerves. 


FIG.  Ill  (Leidy).  DIAGRAMS  EXHIBITING  THE  ARRANGEMENT  op  THE  VALVES  OF  VEINS. 
—A,  Vein  laid  open,  showing  the  valves  in  pairs.  B,  Longitudinal  section  of  a  vein,  in- 
dicating the  mode  in  which  the  valves,  by  apposition  of  their  free  edges,  close  its  calibre. 
The  dilated  condition  of  the  walls  behind  the  valves  is  also  seen.  C,  Vein  distended, 
showing  how  the  sinuses  behind  the  valves  become  dilated. 

341.  The  .CAPILLARIES  are  exceedingly   delicate  tubes, 
which  are  continuous  with  the  basement  membrane  of  the  in- 
ternal coat  of  the  arteries  and  veins.     The  network  of  the 
capillaries  varies,  adapting  itself  to  the  particular  tissue  in 
which  it  is  found ;  thus,  in  the  lungs  it  takes  the  form  of  the 
air-cells ;  in  the  muscles  the  meshes  are  elongated. 

\  33.  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  BLOOD. — Analysis  of  the  Blood.  Relative 
Proportions  of  Different  Chemical  Substances  in  the  Corpuscle  and  the 
Plasma. 

342.  The  analysis  of  blood  by  different  chemists  gives  very 
different  results,  due  chiefly  to  the  variable  .composition  of 


THE   CIRCULATION.  161 

this  fluid  under  deferent  conditions  connected  with  health, 
age,  temperament,  etc.  The  following  table  from  Lehman 
shows  the  composition  of  1000  parts  of  blood,  calculated  from 
the  analysis  of  venous  blood  by  Lecanu : 

Corpuscle.  Plasma.  Total. 

Water 344.000  451.45  795.45 

Haeraatin 8.375 

Globulin 141.11 

Fat 1.155 

Extractive  matter 1.3 

Salts 4.06 

Fibrin 

Albumen 

500.000 

343.  According  to   this    estimate,   blood    contains   about 
eighty  per  cent,  water  and  twenty  per  cent,  solid  matter.     In 
round  numbers,  of  the  205  solid  parts,  156  belong  to  the  red 
and  white  corpuscle,  and  141  are  globulin  (modified  albu- 
men), 8£  parts  hsematin ;  the  red  coloring  substance,  1  part 
fat,  H  extractive  matters,  and  4  parts  salts,  chiefly  salts  nf 
potash.     The   remaining  49  parts  of  solids   belong   to   the 
liquor  sanguinis,  or  fluid  portion  of  the  blood,  and  include 
rather  more  than  2  parts  blood-fibrin ;  the  rest  of  these  solids 
are  proper  to  the  serum  of  the  blood,  and  consist  of  39  J  parts 
of  albumen,  1  fat,  2  extractive  matters,  and  4£  salts,  chiefly 
soda. 

344.  Other  mineral  substances  are  found  in  small  quan- 
tities.    The  distribution  of  mineral  substances  in  the  blood  is 
peculiar.    Thus,  the  red  corpuscles  contain  ten  times  as  much 
potassium  as  the  liquor  sanguinis,  but  only  one-third  as  much 
sodium ;  the  corpuscles  contain  five  times  as  much  phosphoric 
acid  as  the  liquor  sanguinis,  but  only  about  half  as  much 
chloride.     The  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt)  is,  there- 
fore, chiefly  contained  in  the  fluid  plasma  of  the  blood,  and 
the  phosphoric  acid  principally,  and  the  potassium  almost 
entirely,  in  the  corpuscles,  which  also  contain  a  large  share 
of  the  fatty  matters. 

u* 


162  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY    AND   HYGIENE. 

Blood  charged  with  gases,  especially  oxygen,  nitrogen  and 
carbonic  acid,  has  a  saline  taste,  and  is  an  alkaline  fluid. 
When  blood  is  exposed  to  the  air,  the  fibrin  coagulates, 
carrying  down  with  it  mechanically  the  corpuscle;  this 
leaves  an  amber-like  fluid,  called  serum,  in  which  the  clot 
floats. 

\  34.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS. — Necessity  fo*- 
Circulation — For  the  Double  System  of  Circulation.  Plan  of  Systemic 
Circulation — Of  Pulmonic  Circulation — Their  Relation  to  Each  Other. 
Provisions  necessary  in  a  Circulatory  Apparatus.  The  Circulatory  Im- 
pulse. Prevention  of  a  Re-flow.  Additional  Forces  for  maintaining 
the  Current  in  the  Arteries — In  the  Veins.  Equalization  of  the  Current. 
Supply  of  a  due  Proportion  to  each  Organ.  Provision  for  Contingencies. 
The  Mechanism  of  the  Body  Compared  with  Works  of  Art. 

345.  The  tissues  are  so  constructed  that  their  vitality  de- 
pends upon  their  activity,  and  their  activity  upon  the  amount 
of  oxygen  and  nutritive  material  supplied  ;  the  oxygen  being 
essential  to  the  chemical  combinations,  without  which  there 
could  be  no  new  deposit  of  tissue  particles,  and  also  to  fur- 
nish a  stimulus,  especially  to  the   nervo-muscular  system ; 
and  the  nutritive  matter  being  necessary  to  supply  the  waste 
produced  by  these  chemical  and  vital  activities.     Hence,  the 
necessity  of  a  pneumatic  apparatus  for  providing  a  constant 
and  sufficient  supply  of  oxygen ;  and  of  a  hydraulic  appa- 
ratus for  conveying  the  prepared  nutriment  to  every  atom 
of  the  body,  and  also  to  remove  the  waste,  worn-out  particles. 
The  former  need  is  met  by  the  exquisite  mechanism  of  the 
lungs,  and  the  latter  by  the  no  less  refined  mechanism  of  the 
heart  and  blood-vessels.     The  two  apparatuses  are  brought 
into  use  and  harmonious  co-working,  by  the  double  circulation 
of  the  blood,  hence  the  necessity  of  the  double  heart. 

346.  From  the  left  ventricle  the  blood  is  forced  into  the 
aorta,  to  be  diffused  through  the  arteries  to  the  capillaries 
in  every  part  of  the  body ;  thence  it  is  returned  by  the  veins, 
through  the  venae  cavse,  to  the  right  auricle,  which  delivers 
it  to  the  right  ventricle;  this  completes  the  Systemic  Circu- 
lation.    From  the  right  ventricle  it  is  thrown  into  the  pul- 


THE   CIRCULATION. 


163 


monary  artery,  and  through  its  branches  to  the  pulmonary 
capillaries,  thence,  returned  by  the  pulmonary  veins,  which 
coalesce  into  four  trunks,  and  finally  enter  the  left  auricle, 
which  immediately  pours  it  into  the  left  ventricle.  This 
completes  the  lesser,  or  Pulmonie  Circulation,  and  the  two 
constitute  one  complete  circuit  of  the  double  circulation. 


FIG.  112. 


FIG.  113. 


FIG.  112.  A  DIAGRAM.— 1,  Left  ventricle  of  the  heart.  2,  3,  Aorta.  5,  5,  Arteries  that 
extend  to  the  lower  extremities.  6,  6,  Arteries  of  the  neck.  7,  7,  Arteries  of  the  arms. 

FIG.  113.  A  DIAGRAM. — 1,  Right  auricle  of  the  heart.  2,  3,  Large  veins  that  open  into 
the  right  auricle.  4, 4,  Veins  of  the  lower  extremities.  5,  5,  Veins  of  the  arms.  6,  Veins 
of  the  neck.  The  arrows  show  the  direction  that  the  blood  flows. 


164  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

347.  Both  circulations  are  carried  on  at  the  same  time, 
that  is,  the  auricles  contract  and  dilate  simultaneously ;  the 
same  is  true  of  the  ventricles,  whose  action  immediately  fol- 
lows that  of  the  auricles.  Hence,  at  the  same  instant,  by 
the  action  of  the  ventricles,  pure  blood  is  thrown  into  the 
body,  and  impure  blood  into  the  lungs ;  and  at  the  same  in- 
stant, the  auricles  receive  impure  blood  from  the  body,  and 
pure  blood  from  the  lungs. 

FIG.  114.  FIG.  115. 


FIG.  114.  A  DIAGRAM.— 1,  Left  auricle.  2,  Right  auricle.  3,  Left  ventricle.  4,  Right 
ventricle.  5,  5,  Pulmonary  artery.  6,  Trachea. 

FIG.  115.  A  DIAGRAM.— 1,  Right  auricle.  2,  Left  auricle.  3,  Right  ventricle.  4,  Left 
ventricle.  5,  5,  Right  and  left  pulmonary  veins.  6,  Trachea. 

348.  How  to  construct  and  keep  in  successful  operation  an 
apparatus  which  should  secure  the  free  circulation  of  the 
blood,  was  no  easy  mechanical  problem.     It  was  necessary 
to  provide  the  requisite  motor-power  at  the  starting-point; 
to  prevent  a  backward  flow ;  to  protect  the  arteries  against 
the  force  of  the  heart ;  to  maintain  a  ceaseless  current ;  to 
equalize  the  pressure,  especially  in  the  capillaries ;  to  ensure 
the  proper  relative  quantity  of  blood  to  each  organ ;  and  to 
provide  for  contingencies  arising  from  accident,  or  other  ab- 
normal action. 

349.  For  giving  the  proper  circulatory  impulses,  we  find 
in  each  heart,  instead  of  a  single  cavity,  the  auricle  and 
ventricle  affording  a  far  more  powerful  impulse.    The  auricle 


THE  CIRCULATION.  165 

is  gradually  filled  by  steady  streams  from  the  veins,  hence 
the  contraction  and  consequent  force  is  moderate ;  but  as  the 
ventricle  receives  the  whole  quantity  at  once,  there  is  a  sud- 
den energetic  contraction  or  jerk,  hence,  a  powerful  thrusting 
of  the  blood  into  the  aorta  and  pulmonary  artery.  Also  the 
peculiar  spiral  and  circular  arrangement  of  the  muscular 
fibres  of  the  ventricles  is  most  effective  in  producing  the 
greatest  projectile  force.  Here  comes  in  a  beautiful  example 
of  the  adaptation  of  each  part  to  its  destined  use.  The  walls 
are  much  thinner  in  the  auricles  than  in  the  ventricles ;  and 
of  the  two  ventricles,  they  are  thinner  in  the  right  than  in 
the  left,  inasmuch  as  the  right  sends  the  blood  only  to  the 
surrounding  lungs,  the  left,  to  the  remotest  part  of  the  body. 
The  power  and  the  required  impulse  exactly  correspond. 

350.  Though  the  arrangement  of  fibres  in  the  heart  is  such 
as  to  give  the  blood  a  decidedly  forward  impulse,  yet  the 
danger  of  a  backward  flow  is  evident.     This  movement  is 
prevented  in  the  auricles,  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscular 
fibres  about  the  mouths  of  the  veins ;  by  the  contraction  of 
the  vein-walls ;  and  also  in  the  right  auricle,  by  valves  in  the 
mouths  of  the  inferior  vena  cava  and  the  cardiac  sinus,  and 
by  the  valves  in  the  veins  at  the  base  of  the  neck.     The  re- 
flow  from  the  ventricles  is  prevented  by  the  mitral  or  bicuspid 
valves  of  the  systemic  heart,  and  by  the  tricuspid  valves  of 
the  pulmonic  heart.     By  the  contraction  of  the  muscular 
columns  of  the  ventricles,  the  chordae  tendince,  or  little  cords 
of  the  valves,  are  stretched,  bringing  the  delicate  membranes 
together  and  into  the  ventricle,,  thus  effecting  a  closure.    The 
reflux  from  the  aorta  and  the  pulmonary  artery  is  obviated 
by  the  semi-lunar  valves.    The  slightest  re-flow  fills  the  little 
pouches  behind  the  valves,  thus  closing  them  till  the  next 
contraction  of  the  ventricle.    The  valves  of  the  right  side  are 
more  delicate  than  those  of  the  left,  their  strength  and  form 
being,  in  each  case,  exactly  adapted  to  their  specific  work. 

351.  The  arteries  are  protected  against  the  sudden  action 
of  the  heart,  by  the  elastic  fibres  of  their  middle  coat,  which 
yield  easily,  thus  preventing  the  liability  to  rupture. 


166  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

352.  The  maintenance  of  the  circulatory  current,  though 
largely  due  to  the  original  impulse  of  the  heart,  or  the  "  vis 
a  tergo"  is  aided  in  various  ways.     The  smooth,  glassy  sur- 
face of  the  inner  arterial  coat  lessens  the  friction ;  the  recoil 
of  the  elastic  fibres  of  the  middle  coat  after  distension,  and 
the  contraction  of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  same  coat,  urge 
the  blood  forward.     These  fibres  increase  in  number,  accord- 
ing to  the  distance  from  the  heart.     The  respiratory  move- 
ments also  aid  the  arterial  flow. 

353.  The  capillaries  have  probably  no  contractility,  and 
though  the  heart-impulse  may  be  sufficient  to  inject  the  blood 
into  them,  it  can  hardly  effect  the  passage  through.     Hence 
other  means  are  employed.    We  think  the  following  physical 
principle,  as  applied  by  Prof.  Draper,  will  account  for  the 
capillary  circulation.     If  two  liquids  communicating  with 
one  another  in  a  tube,  have  for  that  tube  different  chemical 
affinities,  movements  will  ensue,  and  that  liquid  having  the 
strongest  affinity  will  move  most  rapidly,  often  driving  the 
other  liquid  before  it.     Now,  these  are  the  exact  conditions 
in  the  capillaries  of  the  systemic  circulation;  the  arterial 
blood,  as  it  contains  oxygen,  with  which  it  is  ready  to  part 
and  take  in  exchange  carbonic  acid  which  the  tissues  set 
free,  must  have  a  greater  affinity  for  these  tissues  than  has 
the  venous  blood  in  which  these  changes  have  already  taken 
place.     Hence,  the  arterial  blood  entering  at  one  end  of  the 
capillaries  must  drive  before  it,  and  expel  at  the  other  end, 
the  blood  which  has  become  venous  in  passing  through  them. 
The  same  principle  holds  in  the  pulmonic  circulation,  but  the 
affinities  are  opposite.    The  venous  blood  has  a  strong  affinity 
for  the  oxygen  in  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs,  and  contains  car- 
bonic acid  which  it  is  ready  to  give  up ;  hence,  the  exchange 
takes  place,  and  the  arterialized  blood,  having  no  longer  an 
affinity  for  the  air,  is  driven  by  the  venous  blood,  and  thus 
the  circulation  goes  on  as  long  as  the  blood  continues  to  be 
aerated. 

The  portal  current  is  accounted  for  in  the  same  way.     The 
bile-secreting  cells  of  the  liver  are  made  up  of  materials  con- 


THE   CIRCULATION.  167 

veyed  by  the  portal  veins  and  capillaries,  and  hence  have  an 
affinity  for  them.  The  supply  having  been  deposited  and 
the  affinity  thus  destroyed,  the  fluid  will  be  driven  into  the 
hepatic  capillaries,  thus  maintaining  the  portal  current. 

354.  TheJlpjE^thr^^ 

bmed_action  jrf  sey^ra^force£;viz..^the^capillary  impulse : 
the  suction^poweiM^^  blood 

to  the  hearkj^  the  "  vis  a  fronte ;"  the  presence  of  valves, 
single  in  the  small  veins,  double  in  the  larger  trunks,  and 
sometimes  composed  of  three  flaps ;  and  the  thoracic  respira- 
tory movements. 

355.  The  intermittent  pressure  caused  by  the  action  of  the 
heart  is  equalized  by  the  frequent  branching  and  the  anas- 
tomosing of  the  arteries  as  they  approach  the  organs  to  which 
they  are  distributed,  since  the  more  points  of  entrance,  the 
less  will  be  the  pressure ;  and  by  the  elastic  coat  of  the  ar- 
teries, whose  after-distension  gradually  converts  the  separate 
impulses  into  a  continuous  motion,  otherwise  the  capillaries 
of  many  delicate  structures  would   doubtless  be  ruptured. 
We  find  the  elastic  tissue  most  abundant  in  the  vessels  near 
the  heart,  just  where  it  is  most  needed. 

356.  The  proper  relative  amount  of  blood  is  secured  to 
each  organ  primarily  by  the  adaptation  of  its  main  artery, 
and  it  is  interesting  to  notice  how  the  size  of  the  artery  every- 
where corresponds  to  the  need  of  the  organ.     Again,  the 
calibre  of  the  arteries  is  susceptible  of  variation  within  cer- 
tain limits ;  hen$e,  the  supply  of  blood  to  any  organ  may  be 
in  some  measure  regulated  by  the  contractility  of  its  arteries, 
which  is  itself  controlled  by  the  nervous  system. 

357.  Contingencies  are  also  provided  for,  by  the  frequent 
anastomoses  of  the  arteries,  by  their  capability  of  distension, 
and  also  by  their  capability  of  positive  enlargement  by  the 
increased  nutrition  of  their  walls.     Hence,  though  obstruc- 
tions should  exist  in  some  part,  the  organ  may  be  measurably 
supplied  with  blood. 

358.  Though  our  knowledge  is  so  imperfect,  our  tracing 
BO  indistinct,  our  souls  must  be  dead  indeed  if  they  do  not 


168          ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

respond  to  the  exclamation  of  him  of  old,  "  1  am  fearfully 
and  wonderfully  made" — fearfully,  for  often,  as  in  the  heart- 
valves,  there  is  but  a  gossamer  web,  a  tendinous  cord,  be- 
tween the  life  here  and  the  life  beyond :  wonderfully,  for  in 
all  the  round  of  human  arts,  we  find  nothing  which  can  at 
all  compare,  in  perfect  simplicity,  in  faultless  skill,  in  match- 
less beauty,  in  the  refinements  of  philosophy  and  in  the 
subtleties  of  chemistry,  with  this  vital  workmanship,  which 
can  be  none  other  than  that  of  God.  Till  we  reach  our 
utmost  range  of  vision,  it  is  ever  the  same  unfolding  of  the 
care,  the  wisdom,  the  benevolence  of  Him  to  whom  nothing 
is  great  and  nothing  small ;  and  beyond  our  finiteness,  His 
eye  alone  surveys  the  work  of  busy  legions  of  artificers,  ever 
building  up  what  the  wear  and  tear  of  life  is  ever  breaking 
down  ;  His  ear  alone  listens  to  the  music  of  the  million  life- 
rills,  as  they  murmur  on  in  their  ever-ceaseless  flow. 

3  35.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS. — Conditions  favoring 
Free  Circulation.     Treatment  of  Divided  Arteries. 

359.  A  natural  and  equal  temperature  should  be  preserved. 
The  blood-vessels  are  contracted  by  cold,  hence,  a  chill  in 
any  part  of  the  body  drives  the  blood  to  other  parts.     The 
chilled  part  is  thus  weakened,  while  the  over-burdened  parts 
suffer  from  congestion.     If  the  surface  is  chilled,  the  blood 
is  thrown  upon  the  internal  vital  organs,  hence  the  necessity 
of  warm  clothing,  and  also  frequent  bathing,  which  favors 
the  free  action  of  the  cutaneous  vessels. 

360.  The  clothing  should  be  loosely  worn.     Compression  of 
any  kind  impedes  free  circulation.     Pressure  about  the  vital 
organs  is  especially  injurious.     Ligatures  used  to  retain  in 
place  any  article  of  apparel  should  be  elastic.     Tight  dress- 
ing of  the  neck  deprives  the  brain  of  its  due  amount  of  blood, 
and  retards  the  free  return  of  venous  blood  from  this  organ ; 
an  item  of  particular  importance  to  students,  public  speakers 
and  persons  predisposed  to  apoplexy  or  any  brain  disease. 

361.  Exercise  promotes  the  circulation  of  the  blood.     By  the 
action  of  the  muscles,  the  blood  is  propelled  more  rapidly 


THE   CIRCULATION. 


169 


through  the  blood-vessels,  thus  promoting  a  vigorous  circula- 
tion in  the  extremities  and  skin.  The  best  stimulants  for  a 
pale  skin  and  cold  extremities  are  a  union  of  vigorous  mus- 
cular exercise  with  agreeable  mental  action,  and  systematic 
bathing  attended  by  thorough  friction. 

362.  The  quality  and  quantity  of  the  blood  modify  the  action 
of  the  heart  and  blood-vessels.  If  this  fluid  is  abundant  and 
pure,  the  circulatory  vessels  act  with  more  energy  than  when 
it  is  deficient  in  quantity  or  defective  in  quality. 

Illustrations. — 1st,  If  blood  in  large  quantities  is  drawn 
from  the  veins  of  an  athletic  man,  the  heart  will  beat  feebly 
and  the  pulse  become  weak.  2d,  A  similar  effect  is  pro- 
duced when  the  blood  becomes  vitiated  by  the  inhalation  of 
impure  air. 

FIG.  lie. 


FIG.  110.  THE  MANNER  OF  COMPRESSING  DIVIDED  ARTERIES. — A,  Compressing  the  large 
»rtery  of  tho  arm  with  the  thumb.  B,  The  subclavian  artery.  C,  Compressing  the 
divided  extremity  of  an  artery  in  the  wound  with  a  finger. 

363.  Hemorrhage  from  divided  arteries  should  be  arrested* 

15  II 


170 


ANATOMY.  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


otherwise  the  heart  soon  ceases  its  action,  and  the  person 
faints.  If  a  large  artery  be  wounded,  every  beat  of  the  pulse 
throws  out  the  blood  in  jerks.  Until  surgical  help  can  be 
summoned,  the  flow  of  blood  may  be  stopped  either  by  com- 
pressing the  vessel  between  the  wound  and  the  heart,  or  by 
compressing  the  end  of  the  artery  next  the  heart  in  the 

wound. 

FIG.  117.  FIG.  118. 


FIG.  117.  THE  METHOD  OF  APPLYING  THE  KNOTTED  HANDKERCHIEF,  to  compress  r 
divided  artery.    A,  B,  Track  of  the  brachial  artery. 
FIG.  118.  A,  C,  The  track  of  the  femoral  artery ;  the  compress  applied  near  the  groin. 

After  compression  as  described  and  illustrated,  take  a 
square  piece  of  cloth,  or  handkerchief,  twist  it  cornerwise, 
and  tie  a  hard  knot  in  the  middle.  Place  the  knot  over  the 
artery  between  the  wound  and  the  heart,  carry  the  ends 
around  the  limb  and  tie  loosely.  Place  a  stick  under  the 
handkerchief  near  the  last  tie,  and  twist  till  the  fingers  can 
be  removed  from  the  compression  without  a  return  of  the 
bleeding.  When  an  artery  in  a  limb  be  cut,  elevate  the 
limb  as  far  as  possible,  till  the  bleeding  ceases. 

364.  In  flesh  wounds,  when  no  large  vessel  is  divided,  wash 
the  parts  with  cold  water,  and  when  bleeding  has  ceased, 
draw  the  incision  together,  and  retain  it  with  strips  of  ad- 
hesive plaster,  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  width. 
Then  apply  a  loose  bandage,  and  avoid  all  ointments,  "  heal- 


THE   CIKCTJLATION. 


171 


ing  salves"  and  washes.  In  removing  the  dressing  from  the 
wound,  both  ends  of  the  plaster  should  be  raised  and  drawn 
toward  the  incision.  To  lessen  the  liability  of  a  reopening, 
a  proper  position  for  the  union  should  be  regarded.  If  the 
wound  be  between  the  knee  and  ankle,  and  on  the  anterior 
part,  extend  the  knee  and  bend  up  the  ankle ;  if  on  the  pos- 
terior part,  reverse  the  movement,  and,  in  general,  suit  the 
position  to  the  case. 

FIG.  119. 
\ 


¥IG.  119  REPRESENTS  THE  MANNER  of  applying  adhesive  strips  to  wounds. 

Observation. — The  union  of  the  divided  parts  is  effected  by 
the  action  of  the  blood-vessels,  and  not  by  salves  or  ointments. 
The  only  object  of  the  dressing  is  to  keep  the  parts  together 
and  protect  the  wound  from  air  and  impurities.  Nature  per- 
forms her  own  cure.  Such  wounds  seldom  need  a  second 
dressing,  and  should  not  be  opened  till  the  incisions  are 
healed. 

FIG.  120. 


FIG.  120.  a,  a,  REPRESENTATION  OP  WOUNDS  on  the  back  part  of  the  arm  and  fora-arm, 
fc,  b,  Wounds  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  arm  and  fore-arm.  By  bending  the  elbow  and 
wrist,  the  incisions  at  a,  a,  are  opened,  while  those  at  6,  6,  are  closed.  Were  the  arm  ex- 
tended at  the  elbow  and  wrist,  the  wounds  at  a,  a,  would  be  closed,  and  those  at  6,  &, 
would  be  opened. 

Wounds  made  by  blunt  instruments  do  not  admit  of  direct 


172 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 


and  immediate  union.  In  these  cases,  a  soothing  poultice, 
as  of  linseed-meal,  may  be  applied,  and  the  limb  should  be 
kept  still.  A  physician  should  be  consulted,  as  dangerous 
diseases  may  be  induced  by  such  wounds.  Wounds  from 
poisonous  bites  may  be  treated  at  first  by  suction,  either  by 
cupping-glasses  or  the  mouth,  thus  preventing  the  absorption 
of  the  poisonous  matter  into  the  system.  When  this  is 
effected,  cover  the  wound  with  a  poultice,  as  one  made  of 
ground  slippery-elm  bark. 

Observation. — Although  animal  poisons,  when  introduced 
into  the  circulatory  fluid  through  the  broken  surface  of  the 
skin,  frequently  cause  death,  yet  they  can  be  taken  into  the 
mouth  and  stomach  with  impunity,  if  the  mucous  membrane 
lining  those  parts  is  unbroken. 


§  36.  COMPARATIVE  ANGIOLOGY. — The  Composition  and  Circulation 
of  the  Stood  of  other  Mammals,  of  Birds,  of  Reptiles  and  of  Fishes,  as 
compared  with  the  same  in  Man. 

365.  In  most  Mammals,  the  blood  is  similar  to  that  of  man, 
but  the  largest  animals,  as  the  elephant,  have  very  small 
corpuscles.  All  mammals  have  four  cavities  in  the  heart, 
as  in  man.  Its  form,  however,  is  more  rounded  and  less 
elongated.  The  heart  in  quadrupeds  lies  on  the  median  line 
of  the  body,  and  not  a  little  to  the  left  of  it,  as  in  man. 
There  is  a  marked  peculiarity  in  the  distribution  of  the 


FIG.  121. 


FIG.  122. 


FIG.  123. 


Fro.  121.  DIAGRAM  OP  THE  HEART  OP  THE  MAMMAL. — 7,  Right  auricle.  8,  Right  ven- 
tricle. 10,  Pulmonic  artery.  12,  Pulmonic  vein.  15,  Left  auricle.  16,  Left  ventricle. 

FIG.  122.  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  HEART  OF  THE  REPTILE. — 1,  Pericardium.  2,  Single  ven- 
tricle. 3,  Left  auricle.  4,  Right  auricle.  The  arrows  show  the  direction  of  the  blood. 

Fio.  123.  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  HEART  OF  THE  FISH.— 1,  Pericardium.  2,  The  ventricle 
that  receives  the  blood  from  the  body.  3,  The  ventricle  that  sends  blood  to  the  gills. 


THE   CIRCULATION 


173 


FIG.  124. 


arteries  of  quadrupeds.  In  the  long  necks  of  grazing 
animals,  there  is  found  a  large  number  of  small  arterial 
trunks,  which  are  termed  "Wonder  Nets."  Were  these 
trunks  few  and  large,  as  in  man,  the  life  of  the  animal 
would  be  endangered  by  the  constant  dependent  position  of 
the  head. 

366.  The  blood  of  Birds  has  the  highest  temperature  of 
the  vertebrate  ani- 
mals. It  is  richer 
in  corpuscles  than 
that  of  Mammals, 
and  these  corpus- 
cles are  elliptical 
in  form,  instead  of 
globular.  The 
heart  of  birds  is 
highly  muscular, 
and  of  large  size  in 
proportion  to  the 
bulk  of  the  body. 
The  aorta,  at  its 
commencement,  di- 
vides into  three 
large  branches,  of 
which  the  first  two 
convey  the  blood  to 
the  head  and  neck, 
wings,  and  muscles 
of  the  chest ;  while 
the  third,  curving 
downward  around 
the  right  bronchus, 
becomes  the  de- 
scending aorta. 

There    are    "  Won-  Flo>  124>  ABTERIES  OP  THE  TRCNK  OF  A  BIRD  (the  Grebe). 

„     .  — 1,  The  aorta.    2,  The  vena  cava.    3,  A  cerebral  artery. 

der     JN  etS        in    Va-  The  8maii  iines  on  eacn  Side  represent  the  arteries  and 

riOUS    parts    Of    the  veins  of  the  lungs. 
15* 


174  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

body,  especially  in  the  arteries  supplying  the   brain,  eyes 
and  legs. 


FIG.  125. 


FIG.  126. 


Fio.  125.  CIRCULATION  OF  A  REPTILE  (a  Lizard).—!,  Heart.  2,  Left  auricle.  3,  Right 
auricle.  4,  Arches  of  the  aorta.  5,  Superior  vena  cava.  6, 10,  Abdominal  aorta.  7,  Inferior 
vena  cava.  8,  Pulmonary  artery.  9,  Portal  veins.  12,  Lungs.  13,  Stomach.  14,  Intestines. 

Fio.  126.  BLOOD-VESSELS  OF  A  FISH.— 1,  Auricle.  2,  Ventricle.  3,  Arterial  bulb.  4, 
Bronchial  artery  (gill).  5,  Branchial  vessels.  6,  10,  Dorsal  artery.  7,  Venous  sinus. 
b,  Portal  vein.  9,  Vena  cava.  11,  Intestines.  12,  Kidneys. 


THE   CIRCULATION.  175 

367.  In  Reptiles,  the  blood  is  much  cooler  than  in  mammals 
and  birds,  and,  having  fewer  globules,  is  lighter  in  color. 
The  heart  has  only  three  cavities  instead  of  four,  viz.,  two 
auricles  and  one  ventricle.     The  arterial  blood  coming  from 
the  lungs  is  received  into  the  left  auricle,  and  the  venous 
blood  from  all  parts  of  the  body  into  the  right  auricle ;  both 
are  poured  into  the  single  ventricle,  thus  mixing  the  pure 
and  impure  blood,  which  will  account  for  the  sluggishness 
of  these  animals.     A  portion  of  this  mixture  returns  by  the 
aorta  into  the  different  organs  it  is  intended  to  nourish,  while 
another  part  proceeds  to  the  lungs  by  vessels  springing  from 
the  ventricle  or  the  aorta.     The  arrangement  of  the  blood- 
vessels of  different  classes  of  reptiles  greatly  varies,  as  some 
breathe  by  gills  and  others  by  lungs ;  the  frog  in  its  early 
condition  is  furnished  with  the  former,  but  in  its  later  growth 
with  the  latter. 

368.  In  Fishes,  the  blood  is  cold,  usually  red,  and  the  cor- 
puscles small  and  bi-concave.     The  heart  has  but  two  cavi- 
ties— one  auricle  and  one  ventricle,  containing  only  impure 
blood ;  this  blood  is  sent  to  the  gills,  which  answer  the  pur- 
pose of  lungs,  and,  after  being  there  exposed  to  the  oxygen 
of  air  contained  in  the  water  and  purified,  it  is  distributed 
immediately  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  without  the 
interposition  of  a  heart. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

ASSIMILA  TION. 

I  37.  Assimilation,  General  and  Special.  Formation  of  Different  Por- 
tions of  the  Blood.  Changes  included  under  Secondary  Assimilation. 
Secretion,  or  Special  Assimilation.  Excretion,  characteristic  of  all  Se- 
cretory and  Excretory  Glands.  The  Kidneys. 

369.  IN  the  human  body,  as  elsewhere,  the  essential  con- 
dition of  physical  life  is  death.     While  the  vital  force  holds 
the  mastery  over  the  chemical  forces,  the  more  frequent  the 
death-knell  of  the  particles,  the  more  abounding  is  the  life. 
They  perform  their  mission,  yield  up  their  vitality  and  pass 
away,   while  their  places  are  supplied   with  new   material. 
This  new  material  is  obtained  from  the  food  after  its  proper 
assimilation.     As  before  stated,  the  processes  by  which  food 
is  converted  into  chyle,  and  then  into  blood,  may  be  included 
under  Primary  Assimilation;  while  the  changes  which  con- 
vert portions  of  the  blood  into  solid  tissue  may  be  termed 
Secondary  Assimilation ;  both"  of  these  we  will  include  under 
the  head  of  General  Assimilation,  and  the  processes  of  secre- 
tion under  Special  Assimilation. 

370.  The  formation  of  chyle  has  already  been  fully  noticed, 
and  also  its  general  relations  to  the  blood.     The  white  cor- 
puscles of  the  blood  are  supposed  to  be  replenished  from  the 
corpuscles  of  the  lymph  and  chyle,  which  enter  the  blood 
and  are  identical  with  its  white  corpuscles  in  size,  form,  struc- 
ture and  general  composition.     Some  suppose  the  red  cor- 
puscles are  developed  from  the  white. 

The  albuminous  portion  of  the  liquor  sanguinis,  or  blood- 
plasma,  is  supplied  from  that  of  the  lymph  and  chyle,  and  by 
the  venous  absorption  of  digested  food ;  but  it  may  also  con- 
tain more  highly  elaborated  albuminoid  materials  derived 
from  the  corpuscles,  whose  elaborative  office  is  undoubted. 


ASSIMILATION.  177 

371.  SECONDARY  ASSIMILATION,  or  Nutrition  of  the  Organs 
and  Tissues,  consists  of  the  following  stages : 

First,  A  nutritive  fluid,  or  plasma,  exudes  from  the  blood, 
through  the  coats  of  the  capillaries,  filling  the  finest  inter- 
stices of  the  tissues  between  the  capillary  networks,  and 
bathing  all  the  elementary  parts  of  those  tissues.  The  nature 
of  this  plasma  is  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  system,  and  it 
is  sometimes  thought  to  be  identical  with  the  liquor  sanguinis 
of  the  blood,  but  this  is  doubtful ;  it  is  more  probable  that 
the  exuded  plasma  destined  for  the  nutrition  of  the  tissues  is 
of  a  purer  nutrient  material. 

The  second  stage  of  the  nutritive  process  consists  in  the 
exercise  of  a  certain  selective  act  by  the  elementary  parts  of 
tissues  and  organs,  enabling  them  to  appropriate  to  them- 
selves such  portions  of  the  nutritive  fluid  as  are  suitable, 
either  with  or  without  further  change,  to  renew,  molecule  by 
molecule,  their  worn-out  substance.  "  The  nucleated  cells  of 
the  epithelium  and  epidermis ;  the  corpuscles  of  the  gray 
matter  of  the  brain ;  the  tubular  fibres  of  the  white  nervous 
tissue ;  the  complex  fibres  of  the  striated  muscles ;  the  simple 
fibrous  forms  of  the  contractile  non-striated  muscles;  the 
fibres  of  the  fibrous  and  areolar  tissues ;  and  lastly,  the  con- 
solidated substance,  with  the  remnants  of  cells  imbedded  in 
it,  as  in  cartilage  and  bone — each  derives  from  the  exuded 
plasma  of  the  blood,  and  assimilates  its  required  constituents." 
This  assimilating  power  of  the  tissue-elements  is  the  persistent, 
primitive,  nutritive  force  inherited  from  the  germ-cell.  It  is 
probably  possessed  by  every  cell,  however  modified  or  remote 
in  its  descent  from  the  parent^  cell.  This  power  is  greatest  at 
the  commencement  of  the  life  of  any  animal,  and  declines  till 
the  power  to  maintain  the  body  is  overcome  by  the  forces 
which  lead  to  its  decay. 

Third,  The  result  of  the  act  of  assimilation  is  to  leave  a 
residual  fluid  in  the  interspaces  of  the  tissue-elements  outside 
the  capillary  vessels.  The  nature  of  this  fluid  must  differ  in 
the  different  tissues,  inasmuch  as  different  tissues  make  dif- 
ferent appropriations.  This  fluid  is  not  worthless,  but  only 

H* 


178  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

defective,  and  portions  of  it  are  probably  taken  up  by  the 
lymphatics,  re- assimilated  and  returned  to  the  blood  through 
the  absorbent  system. 

Fourth,  The  final  residue  of  the  exuded  plasma,  that  which 
is  not  taken  up  by  the  tissues  nor  lymphatics,  is  probably 
taken  up  by  the  venous  capillaries. 

Fifth,  With  the  final  residuum  are  mingled  the  effete  par- 
ticles of  waste  from  the  tissues,  which  also  enter  the  venous 
blood,  through  the  walls  of  the  venous  half  of  the  capillaries 
and  of  the  minute  veins.  These  processes,  though  separately 
described,  are,  of  course,  in  the  living  body,  all  going  on  at 
the  same  time,  and  continuously,  and,  in  a  healthy  condition, 
with  a  perfect  balance  of  action. 

372.  Nutrition  not  only  supplies  the  waste,  but  in  new 
growth,  new  cell-elements,  or  germinal  centres,  are  constantly 
reproduced  and  developed.      This  process  occurs  after  the 
body  has  attained  maturity,  in  the  epidermis,  nails,  hair,  the 
epithelial  tissues,  and  probably  the  gray  nervous  substance, 
and  perhaps  in  some  of  the  other  tissues. 

373.  SPECIAL  ASSIMILATION,  or  Secretion,  is  the  separa- 
tion from  the  blood  of  materials  in  a  more  or  less  fluid  con- 
dition, through  a  gland  or  membrane.     After  assimilation,  or 
secretion,  the  products  are  discharged  from  the  ducts  of  the 
glands,  or  the  surfaces  of  the  membranes,  and  are  used  for 
certain  purposes  in  the  living  economy. 

374.  The  secreting  glands  are  the  liver,  the  pancreas,  the 
salivary  and  the  lachrymal  glands ;  the  true  mucous  glands 
of  the  nose,  mouth,  fauces,  pharynx,  oesophagus  and  duod- 
enum ;  the  simple  tubular  glands  of  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines ;  the  sebaceous  and  the  mammary  glands.    The  secreting 
membranes  are  the  mucous,  serous  and  synovial  membranes. 
The  serous  and  synovial  fluids  are  little  more  than  transuded 
materials  of  the  blood-plasma,  unaltered  in  chemical  charac- 
ter, but  modified  in  their   relative   proportions.     By  other 
secreting  processes,  substances  are  formed  which  do  not  exist 
in  the  blood,  but  resemble  its  constituents,  being  albuminoid 
in  character ;  as  pepsin,  pancreatin  and  salivin,  etc.     Others 


ASSIMILATION.  179 

differ  from  the  blood  in  chemical  constitution,  and  are  very 
complex  in  character,  as  certain  acids  of  the  bile,  and  the  fat 
of  the  sebaceous  secretions.  Extreme  examples  of  special 
secretive  power,  by  which  compounds  not  existing  in  the 
blood  are  formed  from  it,  are  afforded  by  the  appearance  of 
sulpho-cyanogen  in  the  saliva,  and  of  hydrochloric  acid  in 
the  gastric  juice ;  so  also  soda  is  withdrawn  from  the  normal 
soda  salts  of  the  blood,  by  the  agency  of  the  liver,  to  combine 
with  the  fatty  acids  of  the  bile. 

375.  EXCRETION  is  effected  by  glands  only,  and  the  educts 
are  eliminated  from  the  blood  and  thrown  out  of  the  system. 
The  excretory  glands  are  the  kidneys,  the  sweat  glands  of  the 
skin ;  to  a  certain  extent,  the  liver,  and,  perhaps,  the  intes- 
tinal tubuli,  especially  of  the  large  intestine,  also  the  seba- 
ceous glands  of  the  skin,  and  lastly,  the  lungs,  which  eliminate 
carbonic  acid  from  the  blood. 

In  excretion,  the  substances  eliminated  from  the  blood 
pre-exist  in  that  fluid  as  the  result  of  decomposition,  and 
are  sometimes  completely  oxidized,  and  always  to  a  greater 
extent  than  the  secretions.  The  successive  stages  of  oxida- 
tion remove  substances  more  and  more  from  an  organiz- 
able  character  and  necessitate  their  removal  from  the 
system. 

376.  In  all  cases  of  Secretion  and  Excretion  there  is  in- 
variably found,  even  in  the  ultimate  ramifications  of  the 
gland-ducts,  a  basement  membrane  covered  by  a  layer  of 
epithelial  cells.     All  glands  are  very  vascular,  and  receive 
large  quantities  of  blood.     In  many  secretory  processes  the 
epithelial  cells  are  ruptured,  and  their  contents,  and  some- 
times the  cells  themselves,  escape  as  an  essential  part  of  the 
secretion   itself;    as  in  the   saliva,  pancreatic  fluid,  gastric 
juice,  the  sebaceous  and  mucous  secretions,  and  perhaps  the 
bile;    but   the   lachrymal   and    excretory   processes   simply 
withdraw  their  substances  from  the  blood,  and  convey  the.n 
from  the  body  without  themselves  undergoing  dissolution  or 
decay. 

377.  The  numerous  glands   and    membranes  have   been 


180 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


noticed  in  other  relations,  with  the  exception  of  the  kidneys 
and  the  glands  of  the  skin. 

378.  The  KIDNEYS  lie   one  on  each  side  of  the  spinal 
column,  in  a  line  with  the  lowest  dorsal  and  the  two  or  three 


FIG.  128. 


FIG.  127. 


FIG.  127  (Leidy).  LONGITUDINAL  SECTION  OF  A  KIDNEY.—!,  Cortical  substance.  2, 
Renal  pyramid.  3,  Renal  papillae.  4,  Pelvis.  5,  Ureter.  6,  Renal  artery.  7,  Renal 
Tein.  8,  Branches  of  the  latter  vessels  in  the  sinus  of  the  kidney. 

FIG.  128  (Leidy).  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  KIDNEYS. — 1,  Two  nriniferous 
tubules  of  the  cortical  substance  lined  with  a  pavement  epithelium.  2,  Dilatation  of  a 
tubule  at  its  extremity.  3,  Branch  of  the  renal  artery  ending  in  vessels  which  enter 
the  dilatations  as  seen  at  4,  5.  6,  Knot  of  blood-vessels  freed  from  its  investment. 
7,  Veins  emerging  from  the  vascular  knots.  8,  Plexus  formed  by  the  latter  veins 
among  the  uriniferous  tubules,  from  which  plexus  originate  the  branches  of  the  renal 
vein. 

upper  lumbar  vertebrae;  the  right  kidney  is  a  little  lower 
than  the  left.  Their  shape  is  that  of  a  bean,  and  their  color 
a  brownish  red.  They  are  made  up  of  two  very  different 
substances,  one  covering  the  whole  organ,  called  the  Cortical 


ASSIMILATION.  181 

substance ;  the  other  is  called  the  Medullary  substance,  and 
consists  of  a  series  of  pyramids,  with  their  bases  toward  the 
surface  of  the  organ,  and  their  summits,  or  renal  papillae, 
toward  the  fissure.  The  substance  of  the  kidney  is  mainly 
composed  of  secretory  tubes,  named  Uri'niferous  tubules,  and 
blood-vessels,  with  little  connective  tissue.  These  tubules  are 
convoluted  in  'the  cortical  substance,  and  straight  in  the 
medullary,  where  the  terminal  orifices  are  seen  by  hundreds 
*at  the  summit  of  each  renal  papilla.  The  tubes  are  lined 
with  an  epithelium  which  secretes  the  urine.  This  secretion 
is  conveyed  to  the  bladder  by  a  cylindrical  tube  about 
eighteen  inches  in  length,  called  the  Ureter. 

Observation. — The  retention  of  the  secretion  of  the  kidneys 
should  never  be  allowed  by  the  young  or  the  old,  the  healthy 
or  the  diseased,  as  suppression  of  the  secretion  of  these  glands 
immediately  affects  the  whole  system,  especially  the  nervous 
centres.  Both  the  quantity  and  color  of  this  secretion  indi- 
cate the  condition  or  health  of  the  body. 

379.  The  glands  of  the  skin  will  be  described  in  Clu  p- 
ter  XII. 

10 


182  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


FIG.  129. 


FIG.  129.  A  FRONT  VIEW  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  THE  CHEST  AND  ABDOMEN.—!,  1, 1, 1,  The 
muscles  of  the  chest.  «2,  2,  2,  2,  The  ribs.  3,  3,  3,  The  upper,  middle  and  lower  lobes  of 
the  right  lung.  4,  4,  The  lobes  of  the  left  lung.  5,  The  right  ventricle  of  the  heart.  6, 
The  left  ventricle.  7,  The  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  8,  The  left  auricle.  9,  The  pul- 
monary artery.  10,  The  aorta.  11,  The  vena  cava  descendens.  12,  The  trachea.  13, 
The  oesophagus.  14, 14, 14,  14,  The  pleura.  15, 15, 15,  The  diaphragm.  16, 16,  The  right 
and  left  lobes  of  the  liver.  17,  The  gall-cyst.  18,  The  stomach.  26,  The  spleen.  19,19, 
The  duodenum.  20,  The  ascending  colon.  21,  The  transverse  colon.  25,  The  descend- 
ing colon.  22,  22,  22,  22,  The  small  intestine.  23,  23,  The  abdominal  walls  turned  down. 
24,  The  thoracic  duct,  opening  into  the  left  subclavian  vein  (27). 


CHAPTEK   X. 

THE  RESPIRATORY  AND    VOCAL   ORGANS. 

$  38.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  AND  VOCAL  ORGANS. — The 

Organs  of  the   Voice  and  of  Respiration — The  Larynx — Trachea — 
Bronch  i — Lungs. 

380.  THE  RESPIRATORY  AND  VOCAL  ORGANS  consist  of 
the  Larynx,  the    Trachea,  the  Bronchi  and  the  Lungs,  the 
whole  being  acted  upon  by  a  complicated  series  of  muscles. 

381.  The  LARYNX,  the  organ  of  the   voice,  is  a  short, 
quadrangular,  cartilaginous  cavity,  extending  from  the  root 
of  the  tongue  and  the  hyoid  bone,  to  the  trachea,  with  which 
it  becomes  continuous  below.     It  is  separated  from  the  spinal 
column  by  the  pharynx,  into  which  it  opens  above  by  a 
triangular  and  oblique  aperture. 

The  Larynx  is  composed  of  five  principal  parts — the  Thy'- 
roid,  the  Cri'coid,  the  two  Aryte'noid  cartilages,  and  the 
Epiglottis.  The  Thyroid*  is  the  largest  cartilage.  It  con- 
sists of  two  lateral,  quadrangular,  wing-like  plates,  which 
meet  in  front  and  form  the  prominence  called  pomum  Adami 
(Adam's  apple).  This  cartilage  is  connected  with  the  hyoid 
bone  above,  and  with  the  cricoid  cartilage  below. 

The  Cricoid'f  cartilage  is  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide 
in  front,  and  one  inch  behind.  This  cartilage  connects  above 
with  the  thyroid  cartilage  by  an  articulation  permitting  the 
latter  to  move  downward  and  forward,  and  also  in  the  re- 
verse direction;  below,  it  communicates  with  the  first  ring 
of  the  trachea. 

The  Arytenoid  J  cartilages  are  two  in  number,  small,  tri- 

*  Gr.,  thureos,  a  shield.  f  Gr.,  krikos,  a  ring. 

J  Gr.,  arutaina,  a  pitcher, 

183 


184 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 


angular  and  curved.     They  are  placed  upon  the  summit  and 
back  part  of  the  cricoid  cartilage,  forming  articulations. 

The  Epiglottis  is  oval-shaped,  having  its  convex  surface 
toward  the  mouth.  It  stands  in  a  vertical  position  above 
the  aperture  of  the  larynx,  which  is  closed  by  it  in  the  act 
of  swallowing. 


FIG.  130. 


FIG.  131. 


FIG.  130.  A  SIDE  VIEW  OP  THE  CARTILAGES  OF  THE  LARYNX. — *,  The  front  side  of  the 
thyroid  cartilage.  1,  The  os  hyoides  (bone  at  the  base  of  the  tongue).  2,  The  ligament 
that  connects  the  hyoid  bone  and  thyroid  cartilage.  3,  4,  5,  The  thyroid  cartilage.  6, 
The  cricoid  cartilage.  7,  The  trachea. 

FIG.  131.  A  BACK  VIEW  OF  THE  CARTILAGES  AND  LIGAMENTS  OF  THE  LARYNX.—!,  The 
posterior  face  of  the  epiglottis.  3,  3,  The  os  hyoides.  4,  4,  The  lateral  ligaments  which 
connect  the  os  hyoides  and  thyroid  cartilage.  5,  5,  The  posterior  face  of  the  thyroid 
cartilage.  6,  6,  The  arytenoid  cartilages.  7,  The  criooid  cartilage.  8,  8,  The  junction 
of  the  cricoid  and  the  arytenoid  cartilages.  12,  The  first  ring  of  the  trachea. 

382.  The  TRACHEA  is  a  vertical  tube  about  an  inch  in 
diameter  and  four  inches  in  length.     It  is  continuous  with 
the  larynx  and  extends  to  the  third  dorsal  vertebra,  where  it 
divides  into  two  branches,  called  Bronchi.     The  trachea  is 
separated  from  the  spinal  column  by  th'e  oasophagus. 

383.  The  BRONCHI*  carry  air  to  their  respective  lungs, 
and  again  divide,  sending  a  branch  to  each  lobe.     These 


Gr.,  brogchia,  the  windpipe  or  throat. 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL,  ORGANS. 


185 


divisions,  called  bronchise,  are  repeated,  until  each  ultimate 
ramification  terminates  in  a  dilatation,  called  an  air-cell. 

384.  The  LUNGS,  consisting  of  two  divisions,  are  situated 
in  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  enclosing  between  them  the  heart 
and  the  great  blood-vessels.  They  accurately  fill  the  cavity, 
adapting  themselves  to  the  varying  size  attending  respira- 
tion. They  have  the  form  of  a  double,  but  very  irregular 
cone,  with  the  apices  above,  and  the  basal  ends  below.  The 
outer  surfaces  are  convex,  fitting  the  form  of  the  chest ;  the 
inner  surfaces  are  concave,  conforming  to  the  shape  of  the 
heart ;  the  basal  portion  is  also  concave,  owing  to  the  upward 
pressure  of  the  diaphragm.  They  are  everywhere  unattached, 
excepting  at  the  root,  where  they  are  firmly  secured  by  the 
pulmonary  ligaments,  the  pulmonary  artery,  the  pulmonary 
veins  and  nerves,  and  the  bronchial  tubes.  The  lungs  are 
closely  invested  with  a  serous  membrane,  named  pleura.  The 
right  lung  is  shorter  than  the  left,  but  wider,  and  of  somewhat 
greater  bulk.  It  is  divided  into  three  lobes ;  the  middle  lobe 
being  the  smallest,  and  the  lowest  one  the  longest.  The  left 
lung  has  two  lobes,  of  which  the  lower  is  the  larger. 


FIG.  133. 


FIG.  132. 


Fra.  132.  THE  LUNGS.— 3,  3,  3,  The  lobes  of  the  right  lung.  4,  4,  The  lobes  of  the  left 
lung.  5,  6,  7,  The  heart.  9, 10, 11,  The  large  blood-vessels.  12,  The  trachea,  15,15,15, 
The  diaphragm. 

Fia.  133.  THE  BRONCHIA.—!,  Outline  of  right  lung.    2,  Outline  of  left  lung.    3,  4, 
Larynx  and  trachea.    5,  6,  7,  8,  Bronchial  tubes.    9,  9,  Air-cells. 
16* 


186  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

$  39.  HISTOLOGY  OP  THE  RESPIRATORY  AND  VOCAL  ORGANS. — 
Minute  Structure  of  the  Larynx.— The  Trachea— The  Bronchi— The 
Lungs  and  Pleura. 

385.  With  the  exception  of  the  epiglottis,  the  so-called 
cartilages  of  the  LARYNX  are  true  cartilage,  and  in  advanced 
life  are  strongly  disposed  to  ossify.  They  are  invested  with 
a  perichori drium*  The  articulations  of  the  cricoid  cartilage 
are  lined  with  synovial  membrane  and  covered  with  capsular 
ligaments.  The  epiglottis  is  of  a  soft,  elastic  nature,  fibro- 
cartilaginous  in  structure,  and  invested  with  mucous  mem- 
brane. 

FIG.  133. 


FIG.  134.  A  VIEW  OP  THE  LARYNX,  SHOWING  THE  VOCAL  LIGAMENTS.—!,  The  anterior 
edge  of  the  larynx.  4,  The  posterior  face  of  the  thyroid  cartilage.  5,  6,  The  arytenoid 
cartilages.  6,  6,  The  vocal  ligaments.  7,  Their  origin  within  the  angle  of  the  thyroid 
cartilage.  8,  Their  termination  at  the  base  of  the  arytenoid  cartilages.  8, 10,  The  glottis. 

FIG.  135.  AN  IDEAL  SECTION  OP  THE  LARYNX. — 1,  The  trachea.  2,  2,  The  lower  vocal 
cords.  3,  3,  The  upper  vocal  cords.  4,  4,  Rima  glottidis,  or  glottis.  6,  5,  Cavities  be- 
tween upper  and  lower  vocal  cords. 

386.  In  the  cavity  of  the  larynx,  the  mucous  membrane  is 
reflected  at  each  side,  outward  and  upward,  forming  a  pair 
of  pouches,  called  the  ventricles  of  the  larynx.  Just  below 
these  ventricles,  are  the  true  vocal  cords,  extending  from  a 
small  process  on  the  fore  part  of  each  Arytenoid  cartilage  to 
the  recessed  part  of  the  Thyroid  cartilage,  ^hey  are  com- 

*  Gr.,  peri,  around,  and  chondros,  a  cartilage. 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.          187 

posed  of  yellow  elastic  tissue,  covered  by  mucous  membrane, 
and  form  two  ridges,  having  very  fine,  smooth  edges  turned 
toward  each  other,  and  placed  accurately  on  the  same  level. 

387.  The  TRACHEA  is  made  up  of  cartilage,  fibrous  tissue, 
muscle  and  mucous  membrane.     The  cartilaginous  part  con- 
sists of  flattened  rings,  or  rather  segments  of  circles,  as  they 
are  wanting  in  that  part  of  the  tube  next  to  the  spine.     The 
last  ring  is  so  modified  as  to  accommodate  it  to  the  two  first 
rings  of  the  bronchi.     The  fibrous  part  is  of  yellow  elastic 
tissue.     It  commences  at  the  cricoid  cartilage,  and  not  only 
covers  the  rings  in  front,  but  forms  for  each  a  distinct  sheath, 
thicker  in  front,  and  gradually  losing  itself  with  the  termina- 
tion of  the  rings.     The  posterior  third  of  the  trachea  has  a 
basis  of  strong,  elastic  fibrous  tissue,  arranged  in  longitudinal 
bands.     The  muscular  portion  has  a  simple  layer  of  fibres 
running  transversely,  being  attached  to  the  ends  of  the  car- 
tilaginous rings  and  to  the  connecting  tissue.     The  trachea  is 
lined  with  mucous  membrane. 

388.  The  BRONCHI  are  constructed  like  the  trachea,  ex- 
cepting in  the  ultimate  bronchial  ramifications,  where  the  car- 
tilages are  composed  of  several  pieces  distributed  around  the 
tube,  and  the  muscular  fibres  form  a  continuous  layer.     The 
cartilaginous  element  finally  disappears,  when  the  tubes  con- 
sist only  of  fibro-elastic  membrane  with  muscular  fibres  and 
a  lining  mucous  membrane. 

389.  The  LUNGS  are  made  up  of  numerous  small,  poly- 
hedral, primary  lobules,  or  clusters  of  air-cells,  which  unite 
into  larger  secondary  lobules.     The  latter  give  rise  to  the 
polyhedral  markings  seen  upon  the  external  surface  of  the 
lungs.     The  lobules  seem  to  have  no  communication  with 
each  other,  each  primary  lobule  being  in  itself  a  miniature 
lung,  performing   independent  functions.     It  has  been  cal- 
culated that  no  less  than  eighteen  thousand  of  these  air-cells 
group  around  each  terminal  tube,  giving  a  sum-total  of  not 
less  than  six  hundred  millions. 

The  air-cells  are  connected  together  by  fibro-elastic  tissue, 
which  renders  them  highly  elastic.    The  cells  are  surrounded 


188 


ANATOMY.,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


FIG.  136. 


by  fine  networks  of  capillary  vessels,  the  terminations  of  the 
branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery  which  accompany  the 
branches  of  the  bronchi.  The  tra- 
chea, bronchial  tubes  and  air-cells 
are  lined  with  a  mucous  membrane 
having  a  ciliated  epithelium. 

390.  The  PLEURA  is  a  serous 
membrane  which  lines  the  thorax 
and  then  is  reflected  from  the  root 
of  each  lung  over  its  surface.  A 
fold  of  this  membrane  extends  from 

FIG.  136  (Leidy).  DIAGRAM  OF     the  ™ot  downward  to  the  diaphragm, 
TWO  PRIMARY  LOBULES  OF  TUB     and  is  called   the   pulmonary  liga- 


ules  connected  by  nbro-elastic  Cated  by  the  SCrOUS  Secretion,  thus 
tissue.  3,  Inter-cellular  air-pas-  preventing  friction  during  the  FC- 
sages.  4,  Air-cells.  5,  Branches  r  . 

of  the  pulmonary  artery  and  spiratory  movements  (43).  By  the 
vein-  approximation  of  the  two  pleurse  in 

the  median  line,  they  form  the  medias'tinum,  or  partition  of 
the  thorax,  which  contains  the  heart  enclosed  within  its 
pericardium. 

§  4O.  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  AND  VOCAL  ORGANS. 

391.  Respiration  consists  of  two  conjoint  processes  :  that 
of  supplying  to  the  body  the  requisite  amount  of  vitalizing 
oxygen,  by  inspiration  ;  and  that  of  removing  from  the  body 
the  deleterious  carbonic  acid,  by  expiration.     The  source  of 
the  oxygen  is  the  air  ;  the  sources  of  carbonic  acid  are  the 
blood  and  the  tissues. 

392.  Some  carbonic  acid  is  generated  in  the  blood,  both 
from  the  respiratory  or  heat-giving  elements  of  food,  which 
chiefly  enter  the  blood  and  are  there  oxidized,  and  from  the 
changes  of  growth   and  decay  to  which   the  corpuscles  of 
the  blood  are  themselves  subject.     It  is  also  probable  that 
some  intermediate  or  partly  oxidized   products  of  the  de- 
composition of  solid  tissues  undergo  further  oxidation  in  the 
blood. 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.          189 

393.  We  find  the  main  source  of  carbonic  acid,  however, 
in  the  tissues.     It  appears  both  as  a  product  of  their  natural 
decay,  and  of  muscular  and  nervous  activity.     The  sum  of 
all  the  chemical  changes  of  the  body  is  oxidation,  and  the 
chief  product  of  this  oxidation  is  carbonic  acid. 

394.  The  proportions   of   oxygen   and   carbonic  acid  "in 
venous  and  arterial  blood  are — 

Oxygen.  Carbonic  Acid. 

100  vols.  venous  blood 5  vols.  25  vols. 

100  vols.  arterial  blood 10  vols.  20  vols. 

It  has  also  been  found  that  the  proportions  of  oxygen  and 
carbonic  acid  in  venous  blood  returning  from  muscles  at  rest 
are — oxygen,  7.5  vols. ;  carbonic  acid,  31 :  from  muscles  in 
action:  oxygen,  1.265  vols.;  carbonic  acid,  34.4. 

395.  The  exchange  of  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  in  the 
capillaries   is   effected    partly   by  physical   and   partly  by 
chemical  processes.     The  physical  process  is  in  accordance 
with  the  law  of  the  "  diffusion  of  gases."     Two  gases  of  dif- 
ferent densities,  and  having  no  chemical  affinity  for  each 
other,  will  intermix  when  brought  into   contact,  and   also 
when  separated  by  a  porous  septum,  provided  they  have  no 
chemical  affinity  for  that  septum.     These  are  the  exact  con- 
ditions in  the  capillaries ;  the  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  are 
the  two  gases,  the  capillary  walls  the  porous  septum.     In 
addition  to  this  physical  process,  there  is  a  chemical  process ; 
the  venous  blood  has  a  strong  affinity  for  oxygen,  hence 
readily  unites  with  it  in  the  pulmonic  capillaries.    When  the 
arterial  blood  reaches  the  systemic  capillaries,  it  yields  its 
oxygen  to  the  elements  of  the  decomposing  tissues  which  sur- 
round them.     The  carbon  and  hydrogen   in   their  nascent 
state,  or  at  the  moment  of  liberation,  seize  the  oxygen  with 
great  avidity,  and  give  in  exchange  carbonic  acid  and  water. 

396.  The  air  of  expiration  differs  from  that  of  inspiration, 
not  only  in  its  increase  of  carbonic  acid,  but  in  that  of  moisture 
and  of  temperature.     As  a  rule,  the  expired  air  is  saturated 
with  moisture.     The  drier  the  external  air,  the  greater  the 
pulmonary  exhalation,  for  in  breathing  air  already  saturated, 


190  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

only  so  much  more  can  be  added  as  the  higher  temperature 
of  the  body  will  enable  it  to  dissolve.  The  pulmonary  ex- 
halation has,  besides  water  and  carbonic  acid,  traces  of 
ammonia,  chlorides,  urates,  and  even  some  albuminous  sub- 
stances ;  it  readily  undergoes  decomposition. 

397.  The  heat  of  the  body  is  the  result  of  the  various 
chemical  actions.     The  temperature  of  the  tissues  generally 
ranges  from  98°  to  100° ;  that  of  blood,  from  100°  to  102°. 
The  blood   varies  in  temperature  in  different  parts,  being 
warmest  in  the  hepatic  veins. 

{*  41.  PHYSIOLOGY  OP  THE  KESPIRATORY  AND  VOCAL  ORGANS. — 
Objects  of  Respiration.  Two  Modes  of  Respiration.  Renovation  of  the 
Air  in  the  Lungs.  Amount  of  Air  concerned  in  each  Respiration. 
Conditions  affecting  the  Number  of  Respirations.  Modifications  of  Re- 
spiratory Movements.  Double  Function  of  the  Larynx.  Resemblance 
between  the  Action  of  the  Vocal  Cords  and  Reed  Instruments.  Con- 
ditions affecting  the  Tone  and  Strength  of  the  Voice. 

398.  The  FUNCTION  OF  KESPIRATION  has  for  its  imme- 
diate object,  the  purification  of  the  blood,  and  for  its  ultimate 
uses,  the  production  of  heat,  motion  and  nervous  energy.     The 
blood  which  becomes  impure  in  the  systemic  capillaries,  is 
carried  to  the  pulmonary  capillaries,  which  everywhere  sur- 
round the  air-cells.     Through  the  thin  walls,  the  poisonous 
carbonic  acid  passes  from  the  capillaries  into  the  air-cells, 
and  is  expelled  from  the  body ;  at  the  same  time,  the  oxygen 
of  the  external  air  passes  from  the  air-cells  into  the  capil- 
laries, and  the  blood  is  changed  from  a  dark  maroon,  to  a 
bright  red  color. 

The  chemical  changes  in  -every  part  of  the  body  caused  by 
the  union  of  this  oxygen  with  carbon,  hydrogen  and  other 
elements  of  the  blood  and  tissues,  maintain  the  temperature 
of  the  body,  and  are  the  source  of  its  nervous  power  and 
electricity. 

399.  Kespiration  consists  of  two  acts — taking  air  into  the 
lungs,  or  inspiration,  and  expelling  air  from  the  lungs,  or 
expiration.    An  act  of  inspiration  is  effected  by  the  enlarge- 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS. 


191 


ment  of  the  chest,  which  is  done  by  elevating  the  ribs  and 
sternum,  and  depressing  the  convex  surface  of  the  diaphragm. 
To  elevate  the  ribs,  two  sets  of  muscles  are  used  ;  those  which 
are  attached  to  the  upper  rib  and  sternum,  contract  and  ele- 
vate the  anterior  extremities  of  the  ribs;  this  enlarges  the 
cavity  between  the  spinal  column  and  the  sternum.  The 
central  portion  of  the  ribs  are  raised  by  the  intercostal 
muscles.  The  second  rib  is  elevated  by  the  contraction  of 
the  muscles  between  it  and  the  first ;  the  third  rib  is  raised, 
by  the  combined  action  of  the  muscles  between  the  first  and 
second,  and  between  the  second  and  third. 

FIG.  137. 


FIG.  137.  A  FRONT  VIEW  OP  THE  CHEST  AND  ABDOMEN  IN  RESPIRATION.—!,  1,  Th« 
position  of  the  walls  of  the  chest  in  inspiration.  2,  2,  2,  The  position  of  the  diaphragm 
in  inspiration.  3,  3,  The  position  of  the  walls  of  the  chest  in  expiration.  4,  4,  4,  The 
position  of  the  diaphragm  in  expiration.  5,  5,  The  position  of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen 
in  inspiration.  6,  6,  The  position  of  the  abdominal  walls  in  expiration. 

The  motion  of  each  succeeding  rib  is  increased  in  the  same 
way,  so  that  the  movement  of  the  twelfth  rib  is  very  free,  as  it  is 
elevated  by  the  contraction  of  eleven  sets  of  intercostal  muscles. 
Simultaneously  with  the  elevation  of  the  ribs,  the  central  por- 


192 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIfiNE. 


tion  of  the  diaphragm  is  depressed  by  the  contraction  of  its 
muscular  margin  and  the  relaxation  of  the  muscular  walls  of 
the  abdomen.  By  these  combined  movements  the  chest  is  en- 
larged in  every  direction.  This  enlargement  of  the  thorax 
tends  to  produce  a  vacuum  between  the  thoracic  walls  and 
the  lungs,  hence,  the  pressure  of  the  external  air  fills  the  air- 
cells,  forcing  the  elastic  lungs  to  expand  and  fill  the  cavity  ; 
as  when  an  elastic  membrane  is  fitted  over  an  open-mouthed 
vessel  connected  with  an  air-pump ;  exhaust  any  portion  of 
the  air  within,  and  the  pressure  of  the  external  air  will  cause 
the  membrane  to  assume  a  convex  form,  the  convexity  being 
within  the  vessel. 

FIG.  138. 


Fw.  138.  A  SIDE  VIEW  op  THE  CHEST  AND  ABDOMEN  IN  RESPIRATION. — 1,  The  cavity 
of  the  chest.  2,  The  cavity  of  the  abdomen.  3,  The  line  of  direction  for  the  diaphragm 
when  relaxed  in  expiration.  4,  The  line  of  direction  for  the  diaphragm  when  contracted 
in  inspiration.  5,  6,  The  position  of  the  front  walls  of  the  chest  and  abdomen  in  inspira- 
tion. 7,  8,  The  position  of  the  front  walls  of  the  abdomen  and  chest  in  expiration. 

Tho  elastic  walls  of  the  air-cells  yield  in  every  direction, 
so  also  do  the  surrounding  areolar  tissue  and  the  pleura; 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.  193 

the   air-tubes   yield   both  in  a  circular  and  a  longitudinal 
direction. 

400.  In  expiration,  the  movements  are  of  a  more  passive 
character,  depending  mainly  on  the  relaxation  of  the  inspira- 
tory  muscles  and  the  elastic  resilience  of  the  tissues  concerned. 
When  the  muscles  relax,  the  sternum  and  ribs  descend ;  the 
diaphragm  vaults  upward ;  the  elastic  walls  of  the  air-cells 
diminish  their  size ;  the  longitudinal  and  circular  fibres  of 
the  bronchi  and  bronchiae  shorten  and  narrow  their  tubes  ; 
and  the  entire  elastic  lungs  rebound  like  an  extended  spring 
let  loose,  while  the  interlobular  and  sub-pleural  tissues  aid 
powerfully  in  compressing  them  on  all  sides. 

Ordinary  expiration  is  undoubtedly  aided  by  the  action 
of  proper  expiratory  muscles,  especially  the  internal  inter- 
costals  and  the  infracostal.?,  small  muscular  bundles  having 
the  same  direction  as  the  former,  but  reaching  over  two  or 
three  spaces,  instead  of  a  single  space  between  two  ribs ;  also 
by  a  portion  of  a  thin  layer  within  the  sternum  and  the  car- 
tilages of  the  true  ribs. 

The  auxiliary  expiratory  muscles  are  the  serratus  magnus, 
the  serrated  muscles  passing  from  certain  dorsal  and  lumbar 
vertebrae  upward  to  the  last  four  ribs,  and  those  which  ascend 
from  the  pelvis  and  lumbar  vertebrae  to  the  lower  ribs,  cer- 
tain portions  of  the  long  muscles  of  the  back,  and,  lastly,  the 
abdominal  muscles.  In  difficult  respiration  almost  every 
muscle  in  the  body  is  made  in  some  way  subservient  to  the 
distension  of  the  chest. 

401.  When  respiration  is  performed  chiefly  by   the  dia- 
phragm, it  is  called  abdominal  respiration;  when  chiefly  by 
the  action  of  the  ribs,  pectoral  respiration.     The  former  is 
the  characteristic  mode  in  men  and  children ;  the  latter,  in 
women. 

402.  The  ordinary  respiratory  movements  alone  would  not 
renovate  the  air  in  the  smaller  air-tubes  and  air-cells.     Ad- 
ditional aid  is  rendered  in  two  ways :  1st,  By  the  diffusion  of 
yases,  causing   the   carbonic  acid  and   the   oxygen  to  mix 
equally  in  all  parts  of  the  lungs ;  and  2d,  By  the  epithelial 

17  I 


194  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

air-current.  In  the  lining  mucous  membrane  of  the  trachea 
and  the  bronchial  tubes,  the  cilia  of  the  epithelium  are  always 
directed  from  below  upward,  and,  like  all  ciliary  motion,  it 
has  the  effect  of.  producing  a  current  in  the  fluids  of  the  mu- 

cous membrane  (41). 

*J  FIG.  139.  AT  *!.•'••        4.U 

JNow,  the  air  m  the 
tubes  must  move,  to  a 
certain  extent,  with 
this  current,  hence,  a 
double  stream  of  air 
is  established  in  each 
bronchial  tube  ;  one 


FIG.    139.    DIAGRAM    OF    A    SMALL    BKONCHUL    TUBE, 

showing  outward  find  inward  current,  produced  by  within  Outward,  along 
ciliary  motion.  the  waUg  of  the  tube 

the  other  passing  from  without  inward,  along  the  central 
part.  Thus  a  kind  of  aerial  circulation  is  maintained,  which, 
together  with  the  mutual  diffusion  of  the  gases  and  the  ordi- 
nary respiratory  movements,  ensures  a  complete  renovation 
of  the  air  in  all  portions  of  the  pulmonary  cavity. 

403.  The  amount  of  air  taken  in  and  given  out  in  a  re- 
spiratory movement   must   vary   with    different   individuals 
and  different  conditions  of  the  system.     The  volume  of  air 
ordinarily  received  by  the  lungs  in  a  single  inspiration  is 
about  one  pint  ;  the  volume  expelled,  a  little  less  than  a  pint. 
In  the  mutual  action  that  takes  place  between  the  air  and  the 
blood,  every  twenty-four  hours,   the  air  loses  about  thirty- 
seven  ounces  of  oxygen,  and  the  body  fourteen  ounces  of 
carbon. 

404.  Respiration  is  more  frequent  in  women  and  children 
than  in  men.     Persons  of  small  stature  breathe  more  fre- 
quently but  less  deeply  than  taller  people.     In  health,  the 
smallest  number  of  respirations  in  a  minute,  by  an  adult,  is 
not  less  than  fourteen,  and  they  rarely  exceed  twenty-five  ; 
eighteen  may  be  considered  the  average  number.     The  num- 
ber of  respirations  is  increased  by  exercise,  food,  stimulants 
and  moderate  cold  ;    while  it  is   diminished    by  inactivity, 


THE   RESPIKATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.          195 

moderate  heat,  starvation  and  general  weakening  influences, 
especially  mental  depression. 

405.  The  actions  of  sighing,  yawning,  sobbing,  laughing, 
coughing  and  sneezing  are  simple  modifications  of  the  ordi- 
nary  movements   of  respiration,  excited  either   by  mental 
emotions,  or  by  a  stimulus  arising  in  the  respiratory  organs 
themselves.     Sighing  and  yawning  often  occur  as  simple  re- 
sults of  deficient  aeration  ;  sometimes  the  former  results  from 
depression  of  the  feelings ;  the  latter  from  mere  imitatiqp . 
Laughter  and  weeping  seem  to  be  always  either  expressions 
of  the  emotions,  or  simple  results  of  sensations.     Coughing 
and  sneezing  are  occasioned  by  irritation  in  the  air-passages, 
and  the  sudden  expiratory  movement  has  a  tendency  to  re- 
move all  intruding  substances. 

406.  The  LARYNX  performs  a  double  function,  one  part 
being  concerned  with  respiration  ;  the  other  with  the  voice. 

In  inspiration,  the  vocal  cords  separate,  allowing  the  air 
to  pass  in  freely ;  in  expiration  they  relax.  The  former 
movement  is  active ;  the  latter,  passive.  Both  co-operate 
with  the  other  respiratory  movements.  The  extreme  sensi- 
bility of  the  vocal  cords  and  the  posterior  part  of  the  epi- 
glottis, causes  them  to  throw  off  any  foreign  substances  hap- 
pening to  come  in  contact  with  them,  by  a  sudden,  expulsive 
cough. 

The  larynx,  however,  is  the  special  organ  of  the  voice; 
sounds  being  produced  by  the  vibratory  action  of  the  vocal 
cords.  During  ordinary,  tranquil  breathing,  the  cords  are 
widely  separated,  the  glottis  being  of  triangular  shape,  but 
when  a  vocal  sound  is  to  be  produced,  the  arytenoid  cartilages 
are  said  to  become  erect,  and  almost  to  touch  each  other;  the 
cords  are  made  suddenly  tense,  closing  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  glottis,  while  the  anterior  two-thirds  opens  a  very  fine 
fissure ;  and  the  air,  driven  by  an  unusually  forcible  expira- 
tion  through  the  narrow  opening  in  passing  between  the 
vibrating  vocal  cords,  is  itself  thrown  into  vibrations  whicli 
produce  the  sound  required. 

407.  The  vibrations  of  the  vocal  cords  take  place  according 


190  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

to  the  laws  which  regulate  the  action  of  the  stretched  mem- 
branous tongues,  or  reeds,  in  reed  instruments.  If  one  ex- 
tremity of  a  short  tube  be  covered  by  two  portions  of  elastic 
membrane,  leaving  a  small  chink  between  them,  a  form  of 
double  membranous  tongue  is  obtained,  which  resembles  the 
vocal  cords  in  man.  •'  The  narrower  the  chink,  the  more 
easily  are  sounds  produced.  The  size,  however,  in  no  way 
affects  the  pitch,  which  is  somewhat  determined  by  the 
lepgth,  tension  and  thickness  of  the  tongues,  but  chiefly  by 
the  tension. 

408.  The  tones  of  different  individuals  are  doubtless  modi- 
fied by  the  shape  and  size  of  the  vocal  apparatus.  Thus,  a 
large  larynx  usually  gives  a  deep-toned  voice ;  a  smaller  one 
gives  a  comparatively  high  pitch.  The  difference  in  the  tone 
of  the  male  and  female  voice  is  due  largely  to  the  great  dif- 
ference in  the  walls  of  the  larynx.  In  the  female,  the  cavity 
is  smaller,  the  angle  in  front  less  acute,  and  the  cartilage 
softer. 

Vocal  sounds  are  further  modified  by  the  elevation  and 
depression  of  the  larynx,  for  when  the  voice  is  raised  from  a 
low  to  a  high  pitch,  the  whole  larynx  is  elevated  toward  the 
base  of  the  skull,  drawing  with  it  the  trachea;  the  vocal 
tube  is  thus  slightly  lengthened  ;  the  diameter  of  the  trachea 
lessened  and  variations  are  produced  in  the  tension  of  its 
walls,  enabling  it  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  different  vocal 
tones. 

The  general  strength  of  the  voice  depends  upon  the  capacity 
of  the  chest ;  the  development  of  the  muscles  used  in  vocaliza- 
tion ;  the  extent  to  which  the  vocal  cords  can  vibrate ;  and 
the  power  of  communicating  resonance  possessed  by  the  air- 
passages  and  neighboring  cavities. 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.          197 


§  42,  HYGIENE  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  AND  VOCAL  ORGANS. — Im- 
portance  of  Proper  Respiration.  Effect  of  Carbonic  Acid  Gas  upon 
Respiration  and  Combustion.  Sources  of  this  Gas.  Location  of  Dwell' 
ings.  Danger  of  Impure  Air  within  the  House.  Importance  of  Ventila- 
tion in  Public  Buildings — In  Sleeping  Rooms — In  Sick  Rooms.  Means 
of  Securing  Warm  and  Pure  Air  in  Winter.  Importance  of  Moisture 
in  the  Air.  Effect  of  Compressing  the  Respiratory  Organs.  Means  of 
Enlarging  the  Chest.  Influence  of  the  Nervous  System  upon  Respira- 
tion. 

409.  In  the  circulating  system,  we  have  seen  the  minutest 
rare  manifested  in  supplying  each  organ,  tissue  and  cell  with 
blood ;    if  the  blood  be  pure,  this  is  the   best  conceivable 
arrangement  for  securing  health  and  vitality ;  if  impure,  the 
means  is  equally  effective  for  poisoning  every  part  of  the 
system. 

410.  That  pure  blood  can  be  obtained  only  by  a  healthy 
action  of  the  respiratory  organs,  and  this  action  only  by  a 
constant  and  sufficient  supply  of  pure  air,  is  evident  from 
what  has  already  been  said.    Limit  !his  supply,  and  a  double 
evil  ensues ;  the  stimulus  furnished  to  the  tissues,  especially 
the  nervous  and  muscular,  is  withdrawn,  and  the  carbonic 
acid  is  retained  in  the  blood ;  hence,  the  brain  works  slug- 
gishly ;    the  muscles  become  inactive ;    the  heart   acts   im- 
perfectly ;  the  secretions  are  deteriorated ;    the  food  is  not 
properly  assimilated ;  and  the  whole  body  becomes  weak. 

411.  Pure  air  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  about 
the  proportion  of  21  to  79.     The  air  is  most  frequently  ren- 
dered unfit  for  vital  purposes  by  the  presence  of  carbonic 
acid  gas,  and  volatile  particles  of  corrupted  animal  matter. 
Carbonic  acid  gas  will  not  support  combustion,  as  may  be 
seen  by  introducing   into   it  a  burning  taper,  which  is  as 
readily  extinguished  as  if  dipped  in  water;   neither  will  it 
support  life ;  if  a  small  animal  be  placed  in  a  jar  of  the  gas, 
life  soon  becomes  extinct. 

412.  The  sources  of  this  deleterious  gas  are  mainly — de- 
caying animal  and  vegetable  matter ;  combustion ;  and  the 
respiration  of  animals. 

17* 


198  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

Plants  in  their  healthy  state  take  up  carbonic  acid  gas, 
and  give  out  oxygen,  thus  maintaining,  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, a  pure  and  respirable  atmosphere. 

In  wells,  mines  and  caves,  where  the  circulation  is  ob- 
structed, this  gas  often  accumulates  in  quantities  sufficient  to 
cause  death  to  those  who  enter.  Hence,  before  entering 
them,  the  air  should  be  tested  by  a  lighted  taper.  If  it  will 
not  burn,  respiration  cannot  be  maintained. 

413.  The  location  of  dwelling-houses  should  be  chosen  ivith 
reference  to  free  circulation  of  air,  and  the  avoidance  of  marshes, 
stagnant  pools,  slaughter-houses,  and  other  sources  of  vegetable 
and  animal  decay.     Careful  attention  should  also  be  given 
to  the  drainage  of  a  house,  and  to  the  cellar.     These  under- 
ground store-rooms  should  always  be  well  ventilaied,  and  all 
vegetables   removed   from  them  in  early  spring.     A  little 
neglect  in  these  and  like  respects  has  not  unfrequently  pros- 
trated a  whole  family  with  typhoid  disease. 

414.  The  chief  danger,  however,  is  within,  the  house  proper, 
and  from  the  breaths  of"  its  inmates.     Unless  ventilation  re- 
ceives proper  attention,  the  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  lungs, 
and  the  effete  particles  of  animal  matter  thrown  off  from  the 
system,  will  soon  render  the  air  poisonous. 

415.  School-rooms,  churches,  concert-halls  and  all  rooms  de- 
signed for  public  purposes  should  be  amply  ventilated.     The 
child  at  school  becomes  listless  and  uninterested  :   why?    Be- 
cause he  is  stupefied  by  foul  air.     When  a  pupil  continues  to 
breathe  such  air,  month  after  month,  his  brain  is  injured, 
and  often   consumption  or  other  fatal  disease   destroys  his 
young  life,  and  then  we  wonder  at  the  "  mysterious  provi- 
dence" that  takes  from  us  the  gifted  and  beautiful. 

The  good  man  at  church  feels  that  he  ought  to  be  interested 
in  the  services,  and  yet,  powerless  to  fix  his  attention,  he  sits 
nodding:  why?  Because  he  is  stupefied  by  foul  air.  The  aii 
breathed  over  and  over  again  last  Sabbath,  and  shut  in  during 
the  week,  is  all  the  poor  man  can  obtain.  How  can  acceptable 
worship  be  offered  by  those  who  are,  at  the  very  moment,  vio 
lating  the  plainest  laws  of  the  Being  worshiped  ? 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND    VOCAL   ORGANS.  199 

416.  The  lamps  of  the  concert-hall  burn  dimly  long  before 
the  closing  hour:  why?     Because  they  are  bedimmed  by  the 
foul  air ;  and  just  in  proportion  to  the  decrease  of  light  is 
the  increase  of  dullness  in  the  audience.    Let  in  the  pure  air, 
and  how  soon  will  the  light  perceptibly  brighten,  and  the 
audience  become  animated.     The  air  of  a  well-filled  school- 
room, church  or  hall,  will  be  rendered  unfit  for  respiration 
in  a  few  minutes. 

417.  The  influence  of  habit,  in  accustoming  us  to  foul  air 
is  strikingly  expressed  by  Birnan,  in  the  "  Art  of  Warming 
and  Ventilating  Rooms"  :  "  Not  the  least  remarkable  example 
of  the  power  of  habit  is  its  reconciling  us  to  practices  which, 
but  for  its  influence,  would  be  considered  noxious  and  dis- 
gusting.    We  instinctively  shun  approach  to  the  dirty,  the 
squalid  and  the  diseased,  and  use  no  garment  that  may  have 
been  worn  by  another.     We  open  sewers  for  matters  that 
offend  the  sight  or  the  smell  and  contaminate  the  air.     We 
carefully  remove  impurities  from  what  we  eat  and  drink, 
filter  turbid  water,  and  fastidiously  avoid  drinking  from  a 
cup  that  may  have  been  pressed  to  the  lips  of  a  friend.     On 
the  other  hand,  we  resort  to  places  of  assembly,  and  draw 
into  our  mouths  air  loaded  with  effluvia  from  the  lungs,  skin 
and  clothing  of  every  individual  in  the  promiscuous  crowd — 
exhalations   offensive,   to   a  certain    extent,  from    the   most 
healthy  individuals ;  but  when  arising  from  a  living  mass  of 
skin  and    lungs   in    all   stages  of  evaporation,  disease  and 
putridity,  prevented  by  the  walls  and  ceiling  from  escaping, 
they  are,  when  thus  concentrated,  in  the  highest  degree  dele- 
terious and  loathsome." 

418.  The    sleeping   room  should   be   thoroughly  ventilated. 
Proper  ventilation  would  often  prevent  morning  headaches, 
want  of  appetite  and  general  languor,  so  common  among  the 
feeble.     The  impure  air  of  sleeping  rooms  probably  causes 
more  deaths  than  intemperance.     Those  who  live  in   open 
houses  little  superior  to  the  sheds  that  shelter  the  farmer's 
flocks,  are  usually  the  most  healthy  and  robust.     Headaches, 
liver  complaints,  coughs,  and  a  multitude  of  nervous  affec- 


200  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

tions,  are  almost  unknown  to  them ;  not  so  with  those  who 
spend  their  days  and  nights  in  rooms  with  double  or  calked 
windows,  breathing  over  and  over  again  the  confined  air ; 
disease  and  suffering  are  their  constant  companions. 

Observation. — 1st,  By  many,  a  sleeping  apartment  twelve 
feet  square  and  seven  feet  high,  is  considered  spacious  for 
two  persons,  and  "good  accommodation"  for  four.  This 
room  contains  one  thousand  and  eight  cubic  feet  of  air; 
allowing  ten  cubic  feet  to  each  person  per  minute,  two  occu- 
pants would  vitiate  the  air  in  fifty  minutes,  and  four  in 
twenty-five  minutes. 

2d,  Among  children,  convulsions,  or  fits,  often  occur  when 
they  are  sleeping,  and  not  unfrequently  in  consequence  of  im- 
pure air.  In  such  cases,  by  carrying  the  sufferer  into  the 
open  air,  relief  is  afforded.  Children  should  not  sleep  in  low 
beds,  while  adult  persons  occupy  a  higher  bed  in  the  same 
unventilated  room,  as  carbonic  acid  is  most  abundant  near 
the  floor,  nor  is  it  advisable  that  the  young  sleep  with  the 
sick  or  aged. 

419.  The  ventilation  of  the  sick  room  should  receive  special 
attention.     It  is  no  unusual  practice,  when  the  patient  is  suf- 
fering from  acute  disease,Jbr  the  attendants  to  prevent  the 
ingress  of  pure  air,  simply  from  the  apprehension  that  the 
sick  person  will  take  cold  ;  and  caution  is  indeed  necessary ; 
the  patient  should  not  feel  the  current.     No  room  is  suitable 
for  sickness  that  is  not  so  arranged  that  pure  air  may  be 
constantly  admitted  without  inconvenience  or  injury  to  the 
patient ;  and  here  we  would  say  that  cool  air  should  not  be 
mistaken  for  pure  air.     A  very  little  sound  judgment  in  this 
matter  would  doubtless  save  much  suffering,  and  lengthen 
life  in  a  multitude  of  cases. 

The  custom  of  having  several  persons  sit  in  the  sick  room 
vitiates  the  air  and  delays  the  recovery  of  the  patient. 

420.  The  great  means  of  ventilation,  in  summer,  are  open 
windows  and  doors.     Motion  is  at  that  season  the  great  de- 
sideratum.    On  a  hot  summer's  day  we  go  into  a  cool  room 
that  has  been  shut  up,  and  at  first  it  is  grateful ;  but  in  a 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.          201 

short  time,  the  cool,  stagnant  air  becomes  oppressive,  and  we 
select  the  open  window  with  its  cireulation  of  air,  even  if  it  is 
a  little  warmer.  Windows  should  be  made  to  lower  from 
the  top. 

421.  In  winter,  ventilation  may  be  obtained  by  properly  con- 
structed flues.     As  cold  weather  approaches,  we  must  close 
the  windows,  excepting  when  in  bed ;  but  good  flues  secure  a 
good  circulation  of  air.     Leeds,  in  his  "Lectures  on  Ventila- 
tion," in  speaking  of  the   value  of  an   open    fireplace   for 
ventilation,  says,  "  Thousands  of  lives  are  thus  saved,  and 
many  more  would  be,  if  all  fireplaces  were  kept  open.     If 
you  are  so  fortunate  as  to  have  a  fireplace  in  your  room, 
paint  it  when  not  in  use ;  put  a  bouquet  of  fresh  flowers  in  it 
every  morning,   if  you  please,  or  do  anything  to  make  it 
attractive,  but  never  close  it;  better  use  the  fire-boards  for 
kindling-wood.     It  would  be  scarcely  less  absurd  to  take  a 
piece  of  elegantly-tinted  court-plaster  and  stop  up  the  nose, 
trusting  to  the  accidental  opening  and  shutting  of  the  mouth 
for  fresh  air,  because  you  thought  it  spoiled  the  looks  of  your 
face  to  have  two  such  great,  ugly  holes  in  it,  than  to  stop 
your  fireplace  with  elegantly-tinted  paper  because  it  looks 
better." 

422.  For  heating  a  small  room,  where  the  occupants  may 
change  position  at  pleasure,  an  open  fire  is  the  healthiest 
known  means,  for  the  air  cannot  become  stagnant,  as  the  fire 
is  continually  drawing  a  considerable  amount  from  the  room 
to  support  combustion,  the  place  of  which  is  supplied  by 
other  air.     Just  here  comes  in  the  greatest  inconvenience  of 
the  open  fire ;  if  the  cold  air  comes  in  at  the  cracks  of  a  door 
or  window  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  room,  it  will  flow  across 
to  the  fire,  chilling  the  feet  and  backs  of  those  sitting  in  its 
track. 

423.  A  stove  is  a  very  economical  mode  of  heating  ordi- 
nary sitting  rooms,  offices,  etc. ;  but  there  should  be  an  air- 
chamber,  or  box,  on  or  near  the  top  of  the  stove,  and  com- 
municating with  this  should  be  a  pipe  for  introducing  fresh 
air  from  the  external  atmosphere.     If  this  supply  of  fresh  air 

I* 


202  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND    HYGIENE. 

is  abundant,  with  a  constant  evaporation  of  moisture,  and  an 
opening  into  a  heated  flue  near  the  ceiling,  to  be  opened 
when  the  room  is  overheated  or  the  lights  are  burning  in  the 
evening,  and  kept  closed  at  other  times,  with  another  open- 
ing into  a  heated  flue  on  a  level  with  the  floor,  which  should 
be  always  open  to  carry  off  the  cold,  heavy,  foul  air  from  the 
floor;  if  a  stove  be  thus  arranged,  for  many  small,  isolated 
rooms,  it  is  one  of  the  most  economical,  comfortable  and 
wholesome  means  of  heating  at  our  command. 

424.  For  the  general  warming  of  a  house,  heating  the  air 
by  steam  is  one  of  the  most  healthy  arrangements,  and  a 
very  good  mode  is  thus  given  by  Leeds :  "  Where  a  steam 
furnace  is  used,  two-thirds  of  the  heating  surface  should  be 
below  the  floor,  and  fresh  air  be  brought  into  it,  and  thence 
conducted  to  the  rooms  through  large  pipes.  The  warmed  air 
should  be  let  into  the  room  at  the  floor,  and  an  opening  into 
an  exhaust-flue,  two-thirds  the  size  of  the  inlet,  should  be 
provided  at  the  floor  for  the  escape  of  the  foul  air.  The 
remaining  one-third  of  the  heating  surface  should  be  exposed 
in  the  halls  and  some  in  other  parts  of  the  house,  to  heat  by 
direct  radiation,  but  under  no  circumstance  should  a  room  or 
office  be  occupied  which  is  heated  exclusively  by  direct  radiation 
from  exposed  steam-pipes.  It  is  one  of  the  worst,  most  un- 
healthy, killing  systems  in  existence."  "  Probably  one  of  the 
very  best  arrangements  is  to  have  a  good  steam  furnace,  with 
a  large  fresh-air  box,  letting  in  an  abundance  of  air  mode- 
rately warmed,  and  overflowing  the  house  with  this,  also  to 
have  some  direct  radiation  in  the  halls,  and  a  bright,  cheer- 
ful, open  fire  in  the  family  sitting  room."  Two  things  are 
indispensable  in  every  furnace — a  large  fresh-air  box  com- 
municating with  the  external  atmosphere,  and  a  large  evapo- 
rating vessel.  Few  persons  realize  the  necessity  of  supplying 
a  proper  amount  of  moisture  in  our  stove  and  furnace- heated 
rooms.  If  it  is  not  furnished  by  other  means,  the  heated 
air  will  have  it  from  the  natural  moisture  of  the  skin  and 
lungs,  thus  producing  a  dry,  parched,  feverish  condition  of 
the  system. 


THE   RESPIRATORY    AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.  203 

425.  The  conditions  of  proper  respiration  require  not  only 
that  the  air  be  pure,  but   sufficient  in  quantity.     Hence  the 
chest  and  lungs  must  not  be  reduced  in  size.     In  children  who 
have  never  worn  close  garments,  the  circumference  of  the 
chest  is  generally  about  equal  to  that  of  the  body  at  the  hips; 
and  similar  proportions  would   exist   through    life  if  there 
were  no  improper  pressure  of  the  clothing.     Such  is  the  case 
with  the  Indian  woman,  whose  blanket  allows  the  free  ex- 
pansion of  the  chest.     The  symmetrical  statues  of  ancient 
sculpture   bear   little   resemblance  to  the  "beau   ideal"  of 
American  notions  of  elegant  form.     The  chest  is  often  con- 
tracted in  infancy,  because  of  the  mother's  ignorance  of  the 
pliant  character  of  the  ribs  and  cartilages ;  thus  she  sows  the 
seeds  of  disease  and  shortens  the  life  of  her  offspring.     In 
later   years   the  same  result  is  produced   by  a  steady  and 
moderate   pressure.     It  is  in   this   way  that  the  "genteel," 
tapering  waist  is  produced.    The  style  of  dress  adopted  at  the 
present  day  is  a  prolific  cause  of  deformity,  for  deformity  it 
certainly  is,  since   the  design   of  the  human    chest   is   not 
simply  to  form  a  connection  between  the  upper  and  lower 
parts  of  the  body,  like  some  insects. 

426.  The  Chinese,  by  compressing  the  feet  of  female  chil- 
dren, prevent  their  growth,  so  that  the  foot  of  a  Chinese  belle 
is  not  larger  than  the  foot  of  an  American  girl  of  five  years ; 
the  American  women  compress  their  chests,  so  that  the  chest 
of  an  American  belle  is  not  larger  than  the  chest  of  a  Chinese 
girl  of  five  years.     In  these  respects,  which  country  exhibits 
the  greater  intelligence? 

427.  Individuals  may  have  small  chests  from  birth,  this  being, 
to  the  particular  individual,  natural.     That  like   produces 
like  is  a  general  law.     If  the  mother  has  a  small,  tapering 
v/aist,  either  hereditary  or  acquired,  the  form  may  be  im- 
pressed on  her  offspring,  thus  illustrating  the  truthfulness  of 
Scripture,  which  declares  that  the  sins  of  the  parent  shall 
be    visited   upon   the   children   unto   the   third   and   fourth 

.generations. 

428.  The  question  is  often  asked,  Can  the  size  of  the  chest 


204 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE. 


and  the  volume  of  the  lungs  be  increased  when  they  have 
been  once  compressed  ?  Yes.  The  means  to  be  used  are,  a 
full  inflation  of  the  lungs  at  each  act  of  respiration,  and  a 
judicious  exercise  of  them  by  walking  in  the  open  air,  read- 
ing aloud,  singing,  sitting  erect,  and  practicing  appropriate 
gymnastic  exercises.  Unless  these  exercises  are  systematic 
sind  persistent,  they  will  not  afford  the  beneficial  results  de- 
sired. 

FIG.  140.  FIG.  HI. 


Fia.  UO.  A  CORRECT  OUTLINE  OF  THE  VENUS  DE  MEDICI,  the  beau  ideal  of  female 
symmetry. 

Fio.  141.  AN  OUTLINE  OF  A  WELL-CORSETED  MODERN  BEAUTY. 

One  has  an  artificial,  insect  waist;  the  other,  a  natural  waist.  One  has  sloping  shoul- 
ders, while  the  shoulders  of  the  other  are  comparatively  elevated,  square  and  angular. 
The  proportion  of  the  corseted  female  below  the  waist  is  also  a  departure  from  the  sym- 
metry of  nature. 

Observation. — Persons  of  sedentary  habits  should  often, 
during  the  day,  take  full,  deep  breaths,  filling  the  smallest 
air-cells  with  air ;  the  shoulders  should  be  thrown  back,  and 
the  head  held  erect. 

429.  Respiration  is  much  influenced  by  the  condition  of  the 
nervous  system.  Abstract  thought,  anxiety  and  the  depress- 
ing passions  diminish  the  contractile  energy  of  the  diaphragm 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND   VOCAL   ORGANS.  205 

and  the  muscles  that  elevate  the  ribs,  thus  preventing  the 
full  inflation  of  the  lungs.  Cheerfulness,  joy  and  all  the  ex- 
hilarating emotions  favor  free  respiration,  and  consequently 
promote  health. 

430.  To    resuscitate   persons    asphyxiated  from   drowning, 
strangulation,  electricity  or  breathing  poisonous  gases,  the  chest 
should  be  suddenly  and  forcibly  pressed  downward  and  back- 
ward, then  the  pressure  suddenly  discontinued.     This  should 
be  continually  repeated  till  a  pair  of  bellows  or  some  other 
means  of  artificial  respiration  can  be  obtained.     When  bel- 
lows are  used,  introduce  the  nozzle  well  upon  the  base  of  the 
tongue,  and  closely  surround  the  mouth  and   nose  with  a 
towel,  press  upon  the  part  of  the  neck  called  Adam's  apple 
while  introducing  the  air,  then  press  upon  the  chest  to  expel 
it,  thus   imitating   breathing.     If  other  means  of  artificial 
respiration  cannot  be  immediately  obtained,  let  the  lungs  of 
the  sufferer  be  inflated  by  air  from  the  lungs  of  other  per- 
sons present.      That  this  air  may  be   as   pure  as  possible, 
the  lungs  should   be  quickly  filled,  and  the   air  instantly 
expelled   into  the  lungs  of  the   asphyxiated   person.      The 
patient  should  be  placed  in  pure  air,  and  a  physician  pro- 
cured immediately.     In  case  of  drowning,  wrap  the  body  in 
warm  flannel  and  place  near  the  fire;    use  no  friction  till 
breathing  is  restored. 

Observation. — Inhaling  the  gas  from  burning  charcoal 
placed  in  an  open  pan  to  warm  a  room,  or  gas  from  a  fur- 
nace or  coal  stove,  when  the  draught  is  imperfect,  is  dele- 
terious, often  producing  death.  Care  should  be  taken,  when 
gas  is  used  for  lighting,  that  it  is  completely  turned  off  before 
retiring  to  sleep. 

§  43,    COMPARATIVE    PNEUMONOLOGY. — Respiratory   Apparatus    of 
Mammalia— Of  Birds— Of  Reptiles— Of  Fishes. 

431.  The  RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS  in  all  the  Mammalia 
is  similar  to  that  of  man,  both  in  structure  and  function. 
There  are  similar  arrangements  and  movements  of  the  ribs, 
sternum,  intercostal  muscles  and  diaphragm.     The  lungs  fill 

18 


206 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY    AXD   HYGIENE. 


the  cavity  of  the  thorax,  and   have  the  same  general  com- 
position of  lobes,  lobules  and  air-cells. 


432.  In  Birds  the  lungs  are  confined  to  the  back  part  of 
the  thoracic  abdominal  cavity,  being  firmly  attached  to  the 
ribs  in  their  interspaces.     They  are  not  separated  into  lobes, 
as  in  the  mammalia,  but  are  lengthened,  oblong  and  flattened 
in  shape,  and  connected  with  large  membranous  cells  scat- 
tered through  every  part  of  the  body.   They  have  the  larynx, 
trachea,  bronchia,  pulmonary  arteries,  veins  and  capillaries, 
although  much  modified. 

433.  The  ultimate  pulmonary  capillaries  do  not  form  a 
network  lining  definitely-bounded  air-cells,  as  in  mammals, 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND    VOCAL   ORGANS. 


207 


but  each  capillary  crosses  an  open  air-space  of  its  own.  They 
interlace  in  every  direction,  forming  a  mass  of  capillaries, 
permeated  everywhere  by  air  (B,  fig.  144). 


FIG.  144. 


FIG.  143. 


FJG.  143  (Owen).  THE  RIGHT  LUNG  OP  A  GOOSE.—!,  A  bronchus  which  divides  into 
two  tubes  that  open  into  the  abdominal  air-receptacles  at  2,  2. 

FIG.  144  (Owen).  IDEAL  SECTION  OF  A  BIRD,  magnified  two  hundred  and  sixty  times. — 
1,  A  primary  bronchus  dividing  into  secondary  bronchi  that  end  in  caeca,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2. 
These  secondary  bronchi  give  off  smaller  penniforin  branches  that  ramify  among  the 
lobules.  B,  A  plexus  of  capillary  vessels. 

434.  A  marked  modification  of  the  respiration  of  birds  is 
the  connection  of  the  pores  of  the  bones  and  feathers  with 
the  bronchial  tubes  and  air-spaces  of  the  lungs,  so  that  there 
is  an  interchange  of  air  between  the  lungs,  the  bones  and  the 
investing  plumage.  The  walls  of  the  bones  of  birds  are  more 
cancellated  than  those  of  the  mammalia.  Birds  consume 
more  air  in  a  given  time,  proportionally,  than  any  other 
class  of  animals,  and  they  soonest  become  asphyxiated  when 
deprived  of  it. 


208  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


435.  In  Reptiles,  respiration  is  more  simple  than  in  mam- 
mals or  birds.  The  lungs  are  less  lobular  and  more  bag- 
like,  extending  into  the  abdominal  cavity.  Upon  the  Avails 
of  these  sac-like  lungs  the  pulmonary  vessels  ramify.  In  the 
turtle,  the  tortoise  and  the  frog,  the  thorax  is  not  so  formed 
as  to  act  like  a  suction-pump,  and  accordingly  these  animals 
swallow  the  air  by  a  sort  of  deglutition. 


FIG.  145. 


Fia.  146. 


Fia.  145  (Owen).   TONGUE,  LARYNX  AND  LUNGS  OP  A  FROG. — 1,  2,  Lungs.   3,4,  Larynx. 
Fio.  146  (Owen).    HEART  AND  LUNGS  OF  A  FROG. — 1,  Heart.    2,  Arch  of  the  aortu. 
3,  3,  Pulmonary  artery.    4,  4,  Pulmonary  veins.    5,  5,  Aorta.    6,  Vena  cava. 

436.  In  Fishes,  the  respiration  is  still  more  modified  and  more 
complicated  than  in  reptiles.     Instead  of  lobular  or  bag-like 
lungs,  there  are  found  only  a  series  of  slit-like  openings,  or 
arches  on  each  side  near  the  head,  called  the  branchiae,  or  gills. 

437.  The  bony  and  cartilaginous  frames  of  these  arches, 
on  the  convex  side,  support  processes.     On  these  are  many 
plates,  or  leaflets,  covered  by  a  delicate  tessellated  membrane, 
or  epithelium,  on  which  the  microscopic  capillary  blood-ves- 
sels ramify.     By  this  arrangement  of  extensive   epithelial 
surface,  the  blood-particles  are  more  minutely  separated  and 
acted  upon  by  the  air  in  the  water.    In  breathing,  the  mouth 


THE   RESPIRATORY   AND    VOCAL   ORGANS. 


209 


and  gills  of  a,  fish  open  alternately ;  the  water  entering  the 
mouth  escapes  by  the  openings  of  the  gills. 


FIG.  148. 


Fio.  147  (Oiven).  SECTION  OP  A  BRANCHIAL  ARCH,  with  a  pair  of  processes  supporting 
leaflets  or  plates,  from  a  cod, magnified  two  hundred  and  sixty  diameters.  1,  A  section 
of  a  branchial  arch.  2,  A  pair  of  processes.  3,  Branchial  leaflets,  or  plates.  The  num- 
ber of  leaflets  in  one  process  of  the  cod  is  about  one  thousand;  in  the  salmon,  fourteen 
hundred;  in  the  sturgeon,  sixteen  hundred. 

FIG.  148  (Owen).  CIRCULATION  OF  THE  BLOOD  THROUGH  THE  BRANCHIAL  LEAFLETS 
(a  diagram).  1,  A  section  of  a  branchial  arch.  2,  A  section  of  a  branchial  artery.  3,  Au 
artery  sent  along  the  outer  margin  of  the  processes,  giving  off  capillary  vessels  to  the 
leaflets.  4,-A  vein  that  receives  the  blood  from  the  capillaries  on  the  inner  margin  of 
t  IKS  process  after  the  respiratory  change  has  been  effected  and  returns  it  to  the  branchial 
v.-in  (5). 

438.  A  remarkable  feature  in  the  organization  of  some 
fish  is  the  swimming,  or  air-bladder,  placed  in  the  abdomen 
under  the  dorsal  spine,  communicating  often  with  the  cesoph- 
sigus  or  stomach  by  a  canal,  permitting  the  escape  of  air 
from  its  interior.  By  a  movement  of  the  ribs,  the  air- 
receptacle  is  acted  on,  so  that  by  diminishing  the  quantity 
of  air,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fish  alters  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. Fish  that  swim  near  the  bottom  have  no  air- 
bladder  ;  as  the  eel,  sole  and  turbot. 
18* 


DIVISION   IV. 

SENSORIAL    APPARATUS. 

IN  the  two  preceding  Divisions,  the  tissues  and  organs 
directly  involved  in  the  movements  of  the  body,  and  those 
most  intimately  connected  with  the  preparation  and  assimila- 
tion of  nutrient  material,  have  been  briefly  described.  In 
the  present  Division,  we  consider  the  organs  through  which 
is  manifested  the  subtle  power  that  controls  these  motions 
and  processes,  establishes  telegraphic  communication  between 
the  several  parts  of  the  body,  and  brings  it  into  important 
relations  with  the  external  world.  These,  taken  collectively, 
we  name  the  Sensorial  Apparatus. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

44.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  —  Two  Forms  of  Nervovt 
Tissue.  Classification  of  the  Ganglia,  Nerves  and  Commissures.  Spinal 
Cord.  Medulla  Oblongata.  Peduncles  of  the  Cerebellum—  Of  the  Cere- 
brum. Corpora  Striata.  Optici  Thalami.  Corpora  Quadrigemina. 
Corpus  Cfdlosum.  Ventricles.  Hemispheres  of  the  Cerebrum.  Con- 
volutions of  the  Cerebrum  and  Cerebellum.  Classification  of  Cerebro- 
Spinal  Nerves  —  Of  Cranial  Nerves  —  Spinal  Nerves.  Sympathetic  Sys- 
tem. Distribution  of  Sympathetic  Nerves. 


439.^NERV  ous  ^TISSUE  ^  pr^sfints^tw^o  jfo^ngj  ^h  P  rg  *****  , 
oneT  ^en-like^and^gray^in_color^  the  otherT  fibrous,  pfif]  ^it^ 
The  former  Js  arranged  In  masses  called  Centres  or  Ganglia, 
being  the  originating,  active  centres  of  nerve-force  ;  the  latter, 
hiCl!  reads,  which  are  simple  conciuctors  of  nerve-force,  arid 


NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

FIC.  i  :u. 


211 


FIG.  149.   A  REPRESENTATION  OP  THE  BRAIN,  SPINAL  CORD  AND  SPINAL  NERVES.- 
I,  The  cerebrum.     2,  The  cerebellum.     3,  3,  Spinal  cord.    4,  The  sciatic  nerve. 

A.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  OLFACTORY  NKRVE. — 1,  2,  Nerve  of  smell. 

B.  DPTIC  NERVE.— 15,  The  nerve  of  vision. 

C.  THE  GUSTATORY  NERVE.—!,  2,  3,  4,  Branches  of  the  nervo  of  taste. 

D.  AUDITORY  NERVE.— 13,  Nerve  of  hearing. 


212  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

are  named  Nerves  when  they  connect  the  ganglia  with  the 
various  parts  of  the  body ;  and  Commissures  when  they  con- 
nect the  ganglia  with  each  other. 

440.  For   convenience   in   sturdy,  the   numerous  Ganglia, 
Nerves  and  Commissures  may  be  arranged  in  two  great  and 
closely-connected  systems — the  Cerebro- Spinal  and  the  Sym- 
pathetic: the  Cerebro-Spinal  system  including  the  series  of 
ganglia  within  the  skull   amd  spinal   column,  their  nerves, 
commissures  and  the  lesser  ganglia  in  the  nerve-tracts:  the 
Sympathetic  system  including  the  long  chain  of  ganglia  lying 
in  front  of  the  spinal  column,  their  nerves,  commissures  and 
additional  ganglia  found  chiefly  in  the  abdominal  cavity. 

441.  The  CEREBRO-SPINAL  Axis  commences  with  that  por- 
tion of  nervous  matter  which  lies  within  the  spinal  column, 
extending  from  the  second  lumbar  vertebra  to  the  base  of  the 
skull,  arid  known  as  the  Spinal  Cord.     It  contains   within 
itself  the  filaments  of  all  the  nerves  of  the  external  parts  of 
the  trunk  and  limbs.     It  is  soft,  and  white  externally,  but 
grayish  within,  forming  the  longest  ganglion  in  the  system. 
The  cord  is  nearly   cylindrical   and  double,  the  two  halves 

connected  by  a  nar- 

Fio.  150. 

row  commissure  or 
bridge  of  the  same 
substance  as  the 
cord,  having  within, 
through  the  entire 
length,  a  minute 
central  canal.  On 
each  half  are  two 
slight,  longitudinal 
lines,  serving  to  dis- 

Fio.  150.  TRANSVERSE  SECTJON  OF  SPINAL  CORD.-!,  2,  ti          igh  \fmioAnte- 

Spinal  nerves  of  right  and  left  sides,  showing  their  two  te 

roots.     4,  Origin  of  anterior  root.     3,  Origin  of  posterior  nor, Lateral  and  PoS- 

r,,ot.    5,  Ganglion  of  posterior  root.  terwr  Columns.    As  it 

enters  the  cavity  of  the  skull,  the  cord  becomes  enlarged  and 
receives  the  name  of  Medul'la  Oblongata.  This  enlargement 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  an  important  ganglion  imbedded 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


213 


PIG.  151. 


within,  named  the  Ganglion  of  the  Medulla  Oblongata,  and 
also  to  the  accession  of  the  fibres  of  most  of  the  cranial 
nerves.  In  each  of  the  lateral  halves  of  the  medulla  ob- 
longata  may  be  seen  four  principal  bundles  of  nerve-fibres, 
ranging  backward  from  the  middle  line  in  front  as  follows : 
1st,  Anterior  Pyramids ;  2d,  the  Oli- 
vary Bodies;  3d,  the  Restiform  Bodies; 
and  4th,  the  Posterior  Pyramids.  These 
bodies  are  continuous  with  their  cor- 
responding portions  of  the  columns 
of  the  spinal  cord.  Many  of  the 
fibres  of  the  anterior  pyramids  cross 
each  other,  bringing  each  side  of  the 
column  into  communication  with  the 
opposite  side  of  the  brain  ;  this  cross- 
ing forms  the  Decussation  of  the  An- 
terior Pyramids.  Some  of  the  fibres 
of  the  posterior  pyramids  also  cross 
a  little  above.  By  the  divergence 
of  the  restiform  and  posterior  pyra- 
midal bodies,  a  somewhat  broad  cav- 
ity is  left,  which  may  be  considered 
a  widening  of  the  central  canal,  and 
which  receives  the  name  of  the  Fourth  Ventricle. 

442.  Overshadowing  this  ventricle  is  a  mass  of  nerve-sub- 
stance, called  the  (^rebeflun^  or  ft'fffr  /jrnfa,  which  in  nlnn 
double,  ^msisting  nf  t^rn  kfifnjspfrerqg.  Iganh  hemisphere 


Fia.  151  (DaUon).  MEDULLA 
OBLONGATA  OF  HUMAN  BRAIN, 
anterior  view.  1,  1,  Anterior 
pyramids.  2,  2,  Olivary  bodies. 
3,  3,  Restiform  bodies.  4,  D<>- 
cussation  >  of  the  anterior  col- 
umns. The  medulla  oblongata 
is  seen  terminated  above  by  tho 
transverse  fibres  of  the  Pons 
Varolii. 


from  its  inner  surface,  sen.ds  out  a  multitude  of  fibres,  which 
pass  downward  and  forward  toward  the  centre,  unite  into 
flattened  bundles,  emerge  from  the  hemisphere,  sweep  across 
the  base  of  the  brain,  pass  up  to  the  other  hemisphere  and 
spread  out  over  its  internal  surface ;  thus  originating  in  one 
hemisphere,  and  terminating  in  the  other.  The  two  sets  of 
fibres  cross  in  front  of  the  Metlulla  Oblongata,  in  the  middle 
line  of  the  base  of  the  cerebellum,  forming  the  bridge  of  the 
Cerebellum,  or  the  Pons  Varo'lii. 
At  the  pons,  the  medulla  oblongata  sends  off  from  the 


214 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


restiforra  bodies,  bundles  of  fibres  called  the  Inferior  Peduncles 
of  the  Cerebellum.  Passing  under  and  among  the  fibres  of  the 
pons,  and  imbedding  the  Ganglion  of  the  Tuber  Annula  re,  are 
two  bundles — one  of  fibres  from  the  anterior  pyramids  and 
the  front  of  the  olivary  bodies,  the  other  from  the  posterior 
pyramids  and  the  back  of  the  olivary  bodies;  as  they  appear 


FIG.  152. 


FIG.  152  (Lfidy).  STRIATED  BODIES,  THALAMI,  QUADRIQEMINAL  BODY  AND  CEREBELLUM. 
— 1,  Quadrigeminal  body.  3,  Superior  peduncle  of  the  cerebellum.  4,  Superior  portion 
of  the  middle  peduncle.  5,  Superior  portion  of  the  crus,  or  leg,  of  the  cerebrum.  6,  Pos- 
terior tubercle  of  the  thalamus.  7,  Anterior  tubercle.  8,  Fundamental  portion  of  the 
cerebellum.  15,  Thalamus.  16,  Hemispheres  of  the  cerebellum.  17,  Dentatcd  body. 
18,  Semicircular  line.  19,  Vein  of  the  striated  body.  20,  Anterior  crura  of  the  fornix. 
21,  Striated  body.  22,  Fifth  ventricle  betwefh  the  layers  of  the  pellucid  septum. 

in  front,  they  diverge,  forming  stalk-like  bundles  known  as 
the  Peduncles  of  the  Cerebrum,  as  they  seem  to  support  the  two 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  215 

hemispheres  of. the  cerebrum,  or  brain  proper,  as  the  flower- 
stalk  bears  its  flower.  The  anterior  bundles  pass  upward  to 
two  large  ganglia  (one  on  each  side  the  median  line),  called 
the  Cor'pora  Stria' ta,  or  Striated  Bodies ;  the  posterior  bundles 
also  pass  upward  to  two  ganglia  situated  a  little  in  front  of 
the  striated  bodies,  and  named  the  Op'tici  Thai' ami.  In  these 
ganglia  the  fibres  seem  to  terminate,  while  a  new  set  con- 
nects the  ganglia  with  the  main  surface  of  the  cerebral 
hemispheres. 

FIG.  153. 


FIG.  153  (Leidij).  SECTION  OF  THE  BRAIN  AI,ONG  THE  QRKAT  LONGITUDINAL  FISSURE.— 
1,  Medulla  oblongata.  2,  Pous.  3,  Cms  of  the  cerebrum.  4,  Arborescent  appearance  in 
section  of  the  fundamental  portion  of  the  cerebellum.  5,  Left  hemisphere  of  the  cere- 
bellum. 6,  Inner  surface  of  the  left  hemisphere  of  the  cerebrum.  7,  Corpus  callosum. 
8,  Pellucid  septum.  9,  Fornix.  10,  Anterior  cms  of  the  fornix.  19,  Foramen  of  com- 
munication between  the  third  and  lateral  ventricles.  20,  Optic  nerve.  24,  Oculo-motor 
nerve.  26,  Fourth  ventricle.  28,  Quadrigeminal  body.  29,  Entrance  from  the  third  to 
to  the  fourth  ventricle.  30,  31,  32,  Anterior,  middle  and  posterior  lobes  of  the  cerebrum. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  these  ganglia  have  an  unbroken 
connection  with  the  spinal  cord  through  the  peduncles  of  the 
cerebrum  and  the  fibres  of  the  medulla  oblongata. 

Extending  backward  from  the  optic  thalamus,  is  a  body 
divided  on  its  upper  surface  into  four  eminences,  hence  called 


216  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE. 

the  Corpora  Quadrigemina  or  the  Quadrigeminal  body.  It  con- 
sists of  four  small  ganglia,  sometimes  named  Optic  Ganglia 
(as  they  send  nerves  to  the  eye),  which  are  attached  to  the 
peduncles  of  the  optic  thalamus,  to  the  cerebellum  and  cere- 
brum and  to  the  medulla  oblongata. 

443.  All  the  above-mentioned  ganglia  are  variously  con- 
nected with  each  other,  with  the  peduncles  of  the  cerebrum 
and  cerebellum,  and,  through  the  medulla  oblongata,  with 
the  spinal  cord. 

444.  The  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum  are  closely  united 
in  their  central  part  by  a  transverse  commissure,  called  the 
Corpus  Callosum,  formed  by  a  dense  band  of  transverse  fibres 
radiating  at  each  extremity  to  the  inner  surface  of  its  cor- 
responding hemispheres.     The  corpus  callosum  is  arched  in 
shape,  and  about  four  inches  in  length.     It  forms  the  roof  of 
a  large  central   cavity    between   the   two   ganglia,    corpora 
striata,  the  cavity  being  divided  by  a  thin,  double  membrane 
(the  pellucid  septum)  into  two  communicating  apartments 
called  the  Lateral  Ventricles.     Each  of  these  has  for  its  roof 
the  corpus  callosum ;  for  its  floor,  the  Fornix — a  membrane 
continuous  with  the  corpus  callosum  behind ;  for  its  inner 
wall,  the  pellucid  septum ;  and  for  its  outer  wall,  the  corpus 
striatum.     The  floor  of  the  lateral  ventricles  forms  the  roof 
of  the  Third  Ventricle,  which  is  a  narrow  cavity  between  the 
optic  thalami,  communicating  with  the  fourth  ventricle  lying 
below  and  back  of  it,  by  a  narrow  passage-way.     Hence  it 
appears  that  the  lateral  ventricles,  in  the  centre  of  the  cere- 
brum, communicate  with  each  other  and  with  the  third  ven- 
tricle, the  third  with  the  fourth,  and   the  fourth  with  the 
central  canal  of*  the  spinal  cord,  making  one  unbroken  com- 
munication through  the  whole  extent. 

445.  Within  the  hemispheres  are  numerous  other  small 
ganglia,   membranes   and   galleries,   whose   description    our 
present  limits  will  not  allow. 

446.  The  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum  enclose  all  the  other 
parts,  in  front,  above  and  behind,  like  a  great  overshadowing 
dome.     Their  outer  surface  is  of  gray  matter,  hence  they  are 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  217 

essentially  two  connected  ganglia,  and  the  largest  in  the 
system.  Each  hemisphere  is  marked  off  by  fissures  into  three 
lobes,  the  frontal,  middle  and  posterior  lobe  or  ganglion,  the 
frontal  being  the  largest,  and  there  is  a  little  offshoot  of  the 
frontal  lobe,  called  the  Olfactory.  Each  of  these  lobes  has 
its  surface  moulded  into  many  tortuous  and  complicated 
elevations  of  the  cerebral  substance,  termed  Convolutions, 
which  are  marked  off  from  each  other  by  secondary  winding 
fissures,  named  Sulci;  thus  there  is  formed  "one  unbroken 
but  undulating  sheet"  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  brain. 

FIG.  154. 


FIG.  154  REPRESENTS  A  CONVOLUTED  CEREBRAL  HEMISPHERE,  a,  a,  The  scalp  turned 
down.  6,  b,  b,  The  cut  edge  of  the  bones  of  the  skull,  c,  The  external  strong  membrane 
of  the  brain  (dura  mater),  suspended  by  a  hook,  d,  The  left  hemisphere  of  the  brain. 

447.  The  general  plan  of  convolutions  in  the  two  hemi- 
spheres is  the  same,  but  in  detail  there  is  want  of  exact  sym- 
metry. It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  higher  the  mental 
development,  the  more  unsymmetrical  and  complicated  are 
the  convolutions,  and  the  deeper  the  depressions  or  Sulci. 
This  is  not  only  seen  in  comparing  the  lower  animals  with 
man,  but  in  comparing  different  races  of  men.  The  brain 
of  the  "Hottentot  Venus,  who  was  no  idiot,"  has  been  de- 
scribed as  having  the  convolutions  of  the  frontal  lobe  strik- 
ingly simple  and  regular,  and  as  presenting  an  almost  perfect 

19  K 


218 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


symmetry  in  the  two  hemispheres,  such  as  is  never  found  in 
the  Caucasian  race,  and  which  much  resembles  that  of  the 
lower  animals. 

FIG.  155. 


12, 


FIG.  155  (Leidy).  BASE  OF  THE  BRAIN. — 1,  Anterior  lobes  of  the  cerebrum.  2,  Middle 
lobes.  3,  Posterior  lobes.  4,  5,  Anterior  and  posterior  extremities  of  the  great  longi- 
tudinal fissure.  11,  Crura  of  the  cerebrum.  12,  Pons.  13,  Medulla  oblongata.  14,  Pyra- 
midal bodies.  14*,  Decussation  of  the  pyramids.  15,  Olivary  body.  16,  Restiform  body. 
17.  Hemispheres  of  the  cerebellum.  19,  Crus  of  the  cerebellum.  20,  Pneumogastric 
lobule  of  the  cerebellum.  21,  Fissure  which  accommodates  the  olfactory  nerve  (22).  23, 
Bulb  of  the  olfactory  nerve.  24,  Optic  commissure.  25,  Oculo-motor  nerve.  26,  Pathetic 
nerve.  27,  Trifacial  nerve.  28,  Abducent  nerve.  29,  Facial  nerve.  30,  Auditory  nerve. 
31,  Glosso-pharyngeal  nervo.  32,  Pneumogastric  nerve.  33,  Accessory  nerve.  34,  Hypo- 
glossal  nerve. 

448.  The  cerebellum,  like  the  cerebrum,  has  its  hemispheres 
marked  off  into  lobes.  The  lobes  are  highly  subdivided  on 
their  sides  and  surface  into  thin  plates  or  laminae,  by  cres- 
centic  furrows  or  sulci.  The  white  fibres  within  the  cere- 


NEKVOUS   SYSTEM. 


219 


FIG.  150. 


bellum  are  so  arranged  that,  when  a  vertical  section  is  taken, 
it  presents  the  appearance  of  the  trunk  and  branches  of  a  tree, 
and  hence  it  bears  the  name  of  Arbor  Vitce  (fig.  158). 

449.  The  parts  already  described,  viz.,  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord,  constitute  the  Cerebro-Spinal  Axis,  from  which  proceed 

THE   NERVES   OF   THE   CEREBRO-SPINAL   SYSTEM. 

450.  Certain  of  these  nerves  conduct  nerve-force  from  the 
ganglia  to  their  own  distal  ends  in  the  tissues,  chiefly  mus- 
cular, where  motion  is  produced ; 
other  nerves  carry  impressions  from 
their   extremities   to  the  centres ; 
the  first  are  termed  Motory  from 
their  function,  and  Efferent  from 
the  direction  of  conduction;  the 
second    are    termed   Sensory    and 
Afferent.       The    anterior    fibrous 
bundles  of  the  medulla  oblongata, 
passing    upward    to   the    corpora 

FIG.  166(JWrfy).    SEGMENT  OP  THE      Striata>  f°rm  a  Mot°r  T™ct>  SO  dig- 
SPINAL  CORD.— 1,  Anterior  median      tinguished   by  the   endowments  of 

rpr,;^r,t.r;;:r:  *e  ™™» ««t  issue  from  it;  ** 

lateral  fissure.    5,  Anterior  column,  posterior     bundles    passing    to     the 

6,  Lateral  column.    7,  Posterior  col-  Thalami     Q    tj    J      form            Sensory 

umii.    8,  Anterior  commissure.    9, 

Anterior  horns  of   the    gray  sub-  Tract. 

stance.     10,  Posterior  horns.     11,  45}      The  Oerebro.gpinal  nerves 

Gray  commissure.  12,  Anterior  root  .           .           r 

of  a  spinal  nerre  springing  by  a    are  also  distinguished  as  Cranial 

number  of  filaments  from  the  antero-  nerves  when  they  DaSS  directlf 
lateral  fissure.  13,  Posterior  root  J  r  J 

from  postero-lateral  fissure.  14,  from  the  brain,  through  openings 
Ganglion  on  the  posterior  root.  15,  in  the  cranium  ;  and  as  Spinal 

Spinal  nerve  formed  by  the  union          •,  .,  „  ,  ,        , 

of  the  two  roots.  when  they  issue  from  the  vertebral 

openings  of  the  spinal  column. 

The  CRANIAL  NERVES  are  arranged  in  twelve  pairs, 
named  numerically,  counting  from  before  backward,  or  from 
their  function,  destination  or  specific  character.  They  may 
be  arranged  in  jbree^  groups,  according  jo  their  functionsf  aa 
Sensory^Moior  and  Mixed. 


220          ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


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NEKVOTJS   SYSTEM. 


221 


FJG.  157. 


19 


222 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE. 


FIG.  157.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PNEUMOGASTRIC  NERVES. — a,  Section  of  the  brain  and  me- 
dulla oblongata.  6,  The  lateral  columns  of  the  spinal  cord,  c,  c,  The  respiratory  tract 
of  the  spinal  cord,  d,  The  tongue,  e,  The  larynx.  /,  The  bronchia,  g.  The  oesophagus. 
h,  The  stomach,  t,  The  diaphragm.  1,  The  pneumogastric  nerve.  2,  The  superior  laryn- 
geal  nerve.  3,  The  recurrent  laryngeal  nerve.  (These  two  ramify  on  the  larynx.)  4, 
The  pulmonary  plexus  of  the  tenth  nerve.  5,  The  cardiac  plexus  of  the  tenth  ner>  e. 
These  two  plexuses  supply  the  heart  and  lungs  with  nervous  filaments.  7,  The  origin 
of  the  fourth  pair  of  nerves,  that  passes  to  the  superior  oblique  muscle  of  the  eye.  8,  The 
origin  of  the  facial  nerve,  that  is  spread  out  on  the  side  of  the  face  and  nose.  9,  The 
origin  of  the  glosso-pharyngeal  nerve,  that  passes  to  the  tongue  and  pharynx.  10,  The 
origin  of  the  spinal  accessory  nerve.  11,  This  nerve  penetrating  the  sterno-mastoideus 
muscle.  12,  The  origin  of  the  internal  respiratory  or  phrenic  nerve,  that  is  seen  to  ramify 
on  the  diaphragm.  13,  The  origin  of  the  external  respiratory  nerve  that  ramifies  on  the 
pectoral  and  scaleni  muscles. 


FlG.  158. 


Fia.  158.  A  VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  CEREBRUM,  CEREBELLUM  AND  MEDULLA  OB- 
LONGATA, showing  the  relation  of  the  cranial  nerves  at  their  origin.  1,  The  cerebrum. 
2,  The  cerebellum,  with  its  arbor  vitae  represented.  3,  The  medulla  oblongata.  4,  The 
spinal  cord.  5,  The  corpus  callosum.  6,  The  first  pair  of  nerves.  7.  The  second  pair. 
8,  The  eye.  9,  The  third  pair  of  nerves.  10,  The  fourth  pair.  11,  The  fifth  pair.  12, 
The  sixth  pair.  13,  The  seventh  pair.  14,  The  eighth  pair.  15,  The  ninth  pair.  16, 
The  tenth  pair.  19,  The  eleventh  pair.  18,  The  twelfth  pair.  20,  Spinal  nerves.  21 
Tho  tentorium. 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


223 


FIG.  159. 


453.  The  SPINAL  NERVES  are  arranged  in  thirty-one  pairs, 
and  (unlike  the  cranial  nerves,  excepting  the  Trifacial)  eacli 
arises  by  two  roots  :  an  an- 

terior or  Motor  root  spring- 
ing  from  the  anterior  columns 
of  the  spinal  cord,  which  are 
continuous  with  the  Motor 
tract  before  mentioned  ;  and 
a  posterior  or  Sensitive  root 
from  the  posterior  columns 
of  the  spinal  cord,  and  con- 
tinuous with  the  Sensory  tract. 
The  Sensitive  roots  are  larger 
than  the  Motor,  and  each 
has  an  imbedded  ganglion, 
after  the  formation  of  which 
the  two  roots  unite  into  one 
trunk,  forming  the  spinal 
nerve,  which  passes  out  of 
the  spinal  column  through 
the  intervertebral  openings. 

454.  The    Spinal    Nerves 
are  divided  into  — 

Cervical  ........     8  pairs. 

Dorsal  ..........   12     " 

Lumbar  ........     5     " 

Sacral  ...........     6     " 

At  some  parts  of  their 
course  certain  branches  of 
the  nerves  reunite,  forming 
networks  called  plexuses. 
Thus  the  four  upper  cervical 
nerves  anastomose,  forming 
the  cervical  plexus,  at  the 
side  of  the  neck  ;  the  four 
lower  cervical,  and  the  upper 
dorsal,  form  the  brackial 


FIG.  159.  A  BACK  VIEW  OF  THE  BRAIN  AND 
SPINAL  CORD. — 1,  The  cerebrum.  2,  The  cere- 
bellum. 3,  The  spinal  cord.  4,  Nerves  of  the 
face.  5,  The  brachial  plexus  of  nerves.  6,  7, 
8,  9,  Nerves  of  the  arm.  10,  Nerves  that  pass 
under  the  ribs.  11,  The  lumbar  plexus  of 
nerves.  12,  The  sacral  plexus  of  nerves.  13, 
14,  15,  16,  Nerves  of  the  lower  limbs. 


224 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 


plexus  (fig.  159),  from  which  proceed  six  nerves  which  ramify 
upon  the  muscles  and  skin  of  the  upper  extremities ;  the  last 
dorsal  and  four  lumbar  nerves  form  the  lumbar  plexus,  which 
sends  off  six  nerves  to  ramify  upon  the  muscles  and  skin  of 
the  lower  extremities ;  the  last  lumbar  and  four  upper  sacral 
form  the  sacral  plexus,  which  distributes  nerves  to  the  muscles 
and  skin  of  the  hip  and  lower  extremities. 

FIG.  160. 


FlG.  160  REPRESENTS  THE  SYMPATHETIC 
GANGLIA,  AND  THEIR  CONNECTION  WITH  OTHER 
NERVES,  from  the  grand  engraving  of  Manee, 
reduced  in  size.  A,  A,  A,  The  semilunar 
ganglion  and  solar  plexus,  situated  below 
the  diaphragm  and  behind  the  stomach. 
This  ganglion  is  situated  in  the  region  (pit 
of  the  stomach)  where  a  blow  gives  severe 
suffering.  D,  D,  D,  The  thoracic  (chest) 
ganglia,  ten  or  eleven  in  number.  E,  E, 
The  external  and  internal  branches  of  the 
thoracic  ganglia.  G,  H,  The  right  and  left 
coronary  plexus,  situated  upon  the  heart. 
I,  N,  Q,  The  inferior,  middle  and  superior 
cervical  (neck)  ganglia.  1,  The  renal  plexus 
of  nerves  that  surrounds  the  kidneys.  2,  The 
lumbar  (loin)  ganglion.  3.  Their  internal 
branches.  4,  Their  external  branches.  5, 
The  aortic  plexus  of  nerves  that  lies  upon 
the  aorta.  The  other  letters  and  figures  re- 
present nerves  that  connect  important  organ? 
and  nerves  with  the  sympathetic  ganglia. 


THE   SYMPATHETIC   NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

455.  The  Sympathetic  system,  like  the  Cerebro-Spinal,  is 
double,  consisting  of  two  chains  of  ganglia,  one  on  each  side 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  225 

i 

of  the  spinal  column,  running  through  the  deep  parts  of  the 
neck,  into  the  chest  and  abdomen.  These  ganglia  communi- 
cate with  each  other,  with  the  spinal  cord  and  with  the  inter- 
nal organs — as  the  heart,  lungs,  stomach,  liver,  pancreas, 
intestines  and  kidneys.  In  the  neck  and  chest  the  ganglia 
are  arranged  in  pairs ;  those  of  the  neck  are  three  in  number 
and  the  largest  of  the  system ;  those  of  the  chest,  twelve  in 
number,  a  ganglion  resting  upon  the  head  of  each  rib ;  in  the 
abdomen  the  arrangement  is  irregular. 

456.  A  peculiarity  of  the  Sympathetic  nerves  is,  that  they 
follow  the  distribution  of  the  blood-vessels.     Starting  from  the 
heart,  they  envelop  the  large  vessels  with  a  close  network, 
called  the  Arterial  plexus;  and  in  the  abdomen,  behind  the 
stomach,  the  large  blood-vessels  are  surrounded  by  many 
small  ganglia,  all  united  by  networks  of  fibres  called  the 
solar  plexus,  because  the   other  plexuses  of  the   abdomen 
radiate  from  it,  like  the  rays  diverging  from  the  sun.     In  all 
parts  of  the  body,  these  nerves  accompany  the  arteries  which 
supply  the  different  organs,  and  form  networks  around  them 
which  take  the  names  of  the  organs,  as  the  hepatic  plexus, 
splenic  plexus,  mesenteric  plexus,  etc. 

g  45.  HISTOLOGY  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. — Three  Microscopic 
Elements  of  Nerve- Tissue.  Nerve- Cells.  Nerve-Fibres.  Membranes 
of  Cerebro- Spinal  System. 

457.  NERVOUS  TISSUE  is  composed  of  three  microscopic 
elements — Nerve- Cells,  or    Ganglionic    Corpuscles,    White  or 
Tubular  Fibres,  and  Gray  or  Gelatinous  Fibres. 

458.  The  NERVE-CELLS  are  nucleated  cells ;  that  is,  vesic- 
ular matter  containing,  besides  a  pulpy  substance,  an  eccen- 
tric, roundish  body,  or  nucleus,  enclosing  one  or  more  nucleoli 
surrounded  by  colored  granules  (32).    These  nerve-cells  have 
various  branches  or  offsets  starting  from  any  part  of  the  cell- 
wall  and  completely  continuous  with  it  and  with  the  con- 
tents of  the  cell  itself.     The  branches  connect  the  cells  with 
each  other,  and  also  with  the  nerve-fibres.     Their  number 
varies  from  one  to  twenty,  and  the  cells  are  accordingly  dis- 

K* 


226 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 


tinguished  as  unipolar,  bipolar  and  multipolar  (fig.  16).  A 
collection  of  nerve-cells  constitutes  the  essential  part  of  a 
Ganglion.  They  are  imbedded  in  a 
matrix  of  fine,  soft,  granular  matter, 
and  variously  mingled  and  interwoven 
with  multitudes  of  fibres.  Composed 
of  such  masses,  do  we  find  the  whole 
convoluted  surface  of  the  brain,  the 
thalami  optici,  the  corpora  striata,  the 
quadrigeminal  body  and  some  other 
minute  bodies;  from  these,  one  un- 
broken,  gray  tract  may  be  traced 

Fi«.  161  (Leidy).    PORTION        ,  ,      °      T          „  ,.    ,    J         , 

OF  GRAY  SUBSTANCE,  FROM    through  the  interior  of  the  peduncles  of 
THE  EXTERIOR  OF  THE  CERE-    the  brain,  the  interior  of  the  medulla  ob- 

BELLUM.  —  1,  TWO    lierve-cells       ,  ir>,1  l  i    //»         i«,i\ 

with  bipolar  prolongations,    longata  and  of  the  spinal  cord  (fig.  164). 
2,  Granular  matter.  3,  NU-    The  various  ganglia  of  the  sympathetic 

lies.  4,  Nc       -fibres. 


FlG-  ir>2' 


459.  The  WHITE  or  TUBULAR  FIBRES,  or  the  ultimate 
nerve-filaments,  consist  of  an  outer,  structureless  membrane  en- 

closing a  layer  of  trans- 
parent  fluid  fat,  or  me- 
dullary matter,  within 
which  is  a  firmer  part 
—  a  gray,  ribbon-like 
thread  —  called  the  cen- 
tral band-axis,  or  the 

FIG.  162.  NERVE-FILAMENTS,  decussing  with  their      axis    cylinder       This    is 
sheath.  .  y 

identical    in    structure 

with  the  processes  of  the  nerve-cells  with  which  it  is  con- 
tinuous, and  is  very  important,  as  it  is  sometimes  the  only 
part  of  the  nerve-fibre  left  within  the  structureless  sheath  ; 
thus  constituting  the  so-called  pale,  non-medullated  nerve- 
fibre.  As  the  medullary  matter  encloses  the  band-axis,  it  is 
often,  though  improperly,  called  the  medullary  sheath. 

460.  The    nerve-  filaments    are    distributed    to   the    skin, 
muscles   and   glandular   organs,  in   all    parts  of  the  body. 
From  these  points  they  approach  each  other,  uniting  into 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  227 

little  bundles  or  fibres,  and  then  into  larger  bundles,  till  they 
are  of  sufficient  size  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  when  they 
constitute  a  nerve.  The  filaments  do  not  blend  with  each 
other,  but  lie  in  simple  juxtaposition,  each  retaining  a  com- 
plete individuality  from  its  origin  to  its  termination.  Like 
the  fibres  of  a  muscle,  they  are  bound  together  and  protected 
by  a  covering  of  areolar  tissue,  called  its  Neurilem'a,  or  sheath, 
which  also  contains  the  blood-vessels  for  the  nutrition  of  the 
nerve.  The  filaments  become  gradually  finer  toward  their 
outer  extremities,  till  at  length  the  sheath,  medullary  por- 
tion and  band-axis  become  undistinguishable.  Their  mode 
of  termination  is  uncertain,  though  the  sensory  nerves,  at 
least,  seem  to  have  free  extremities. 

FIG.  1»53. 


Fin.  163.  DIAGRAM  OP  HUMAN  BRAIN,  IN  VERTICAL  SECTION,  showing  the  situation  of 
the  different  ganglia  and  the  course  of  the  fibres.  1,  Olfactory  ganglion.  2,  Hemisphere. 
3,  Corpus  striatum.  4,  Optic  thalamus.  5,  Tubercula  quadrigeinina.  6,  Cerebellum. 
7,  Ganglion  of  tuber  anmilare.  8,  Ganglion  of  medulla  oblongata. 

461.  The  tubular  fibres  compose  the  white  parts  of  the 
brain  and  the  spinal  cord  ;  the  chief  substance  of  the  nerves ; 
and  also  pass  into  and  mix  with  the  gray  substance  of  the 
brain,  cord  and  all  the  ganglia.     They  vary  in  size,  being 
finest  of  all  in  the  superficial  layers  of  the  brain,  fine  in  the 
nerves  of  special  sense  and  in  the  ganglia,  larger  in  the  fore 
p*art  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  largest  in  the  motor  nerves. 

462.  Besides  the  White  tubular  fibres,  there  are  found, 


228  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

chiefly  in  the  Sympathetic  System,  GRAY  or  GELATINOUS 
FIBRES,  which  are  flattened,  more  minute  than  the  white  fibres, 
and  greatly  resembling  their  band-axis.  Some  have  considered 
these  but  a  form  of  connective  tissue,  but  whether  they  be  so 
considered,  or  as  true  nervous  elements,  they  seem  to  be  pro- 
duced by  the  coalescence  of  elongated  nucleated  cells,  the 
contents  of  which,  as  the  cells  enlarge,  become  soft  and  finely 
granular,  while  the  nuclei  appear  wider  and  wider  apart. 

463.  The  MEMBRANES  of  the  Cerebro-Spinal  System  are 
four  in  number — the  Dura  Mater,  the  Pia  Mater,  the  Aracli- 
noid  Membrane  and  the  Epen'dyma.     The  Dura  Mater  is  a 
tough,  fibrous  membrane  lining  the  bony  walls  of  the  skull 
and  spinal  column,  forming  their  periosteum.    The  Pia  Mater 
is  another  fibrous  and  very  vascular  membrane  which  closely 
invests  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and  sends  processes  into  all 
their  fissures.     The  inner  surface  of  the  dura  mater,  and  the 
outer  surface  of  the  pia  mater,  each  become  very  delicate  in 
structure  and  are  lined  with  an  epithelium :  this  gossamer  mem- 
brane is  named  the  Arachnoid  Membrane.  Its  two  layers  unite 
at  many  points,  thus  forming  closed  sacs,  which,  like  other 
serous  membranes,  secrete  a  fluid  called  the  arachnoid  fluid. 

464.  The  dura  mater  not  only  firmly  invests  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord,  but  sends  off  supporting  partitions — that  which  de- 
scends between  the  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum  being  called 
the  Cerebral  Falx ;  that  between  the  hemispheres  of  the  cere- 
bellum, the  Cerebellar  Falx;  and  that  between  the  cerebrum 
and  cerebellum,  the  Tentorium.     Through  separations  in  the 
layers  of  the  dura  mater,  channels  are  formed,  performing 
the  office  of  veins :  they  are  named  Sinuses  of  the  Dura  Mater,. 
and  are  lined  with  a  continuation  of  the  ordinary  epithelium 
of  blood-vessels.     The  dura  mater  also  furnishes  the  areolar 
sheaths  to  the  several  cranial  and  spinal  nerves ;  therefore  it 
is  continuous  from  the  lining  of  the  cranium  to  the  extremity 
of  the  nerves  in  the  different  parts  of  the  body. 

465.  The.  Ependyma  is  a  delicate,  transparent,  serous  mem- 
brane, lining  the  ventricles  of  the  brain  and  the  central  canul 
of  the  spinal  cord. 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  229 


8  46.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. — Man's  Compound 
Nature.  Relation  of  the  Nervous  System  to  this  Nature.  The  Hank 
of  the  Nervous  System.  Relation  of  the  Nervous  Centres  to  the  Sensitive 
and  Motor  Nerves.  Classification  of  the  Centres.  System  of  Dependen- 
cies. General  Function  of  the  Organic  Centres.  Their  Modes  of  Reflex 
Action.  Peculiarity  of  Sympathetic  Action.  Functions  of  the  Reflex  or 
Spinal.  Centres.  Their  Acquired  Action,  and  the  Theory  Explaining  it. 
Practical  Importance  of  the  Automatic  Tendency  produced  by  Repeti- 
tion and  Association.  Character  of  the  Sensational  Centres  and  their 
Action.  Internal  Stimuli  to  the  Activity  of  these  Centres.  Functions 
of  the  Ideational  Centres.  Ideas  Suggested  by  the  Same  Object  different 
in  Different  Individuals.  Various  Manifestations  of  Reflex  Action  in 
the  Ideational  Centres.  Emotional  Character  of  these  Centres. .  Voli- 
tional Character.  Relation  of  the  Emotions  to  the  Will.  Influence  of  the 
Physical  Nature  for  Good  or  for  Evil.  The  Language  of  the  Muscles. 

466.  At  different  periods  of  the  world's  history,  many  dif- 
ferent opinions   have  prevailed    concerning  the   respective 
existence  of  body  and  soul,  and  their  relations  to  each  other. 
The  pagan  Greek  included  all  under  the  one  word  <p U%TJ  and 
the  Roman  under  that  of  anima,  which  was  almost  "  equally 
applicable  to  the  vegetative  life  of  a  cabbage,  the  animal  life 
of  a  sheep,  and  the  spiritual  life  of  an  apostle."     During  the 
fifth  century  before  the  Christian  era,  Anaxagoras  advanced 
a  shadowy  idea  of  man's  compound  nature,  which  at  the  day- 
dawn  of  Christianity  assumed  a  clear  and  definite  outline. 
At  length  philosopher  and  Christian  advocated  the  supremacy 
of  the  immaterial  nature  over  the  material,  and  eventually 
regarded  their  interests  as  antagonistic.   The  body  was  deemed 
the  source  of  all  evil — the  work  of  the  Prince  of  Darkness. 
At  the  present  day,  more  than  at  any  former  period,  efforts 
are  being  made  to  rightly  balance  the  two  natures,  and  yet 
many  seem  to  regard  the  body  as  a  gloomy  prison-house  in 
which  God  has  shut  us  up,  rather  than  as  a  beautiful  "  temple" 
in  which  the  mind  and  soul  may  dwell  as  priest  and  priestess, 
using  all  its  appointments  in  rendering  service  to  the  Lord 
of  the  temple. 

467.  The  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  is  the  border-land  where  the 
material  touches  the  immaterial.     It  possesses  that  highest 

20 


230  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

refinement  of  physical  organization  through  which  the  mind 
may  manifest  itself,  and  by  means  of  which  it  may  control 
and  bring  into  service,  not  only  the  various  organs  of  the 
body,  but  other  matter  more  external  and  remote. 

468.  The  organisms  heretofore  described  have  no  inherent 
active  power,  but  are  entirely  dependent  upon  the  nervous 
system:  thus,  the  bones  are  dependent  for  movement  upion 
the  contractility  of  the  muscles  ;  this  contractility,  upon  the 
stimulus  of  the  nerves;    this  stimulus,  upon  the  energetic 
action  of  the  nerve-centres  ;  and  these  centres  are  graded  in 
rank  and  measurably  dependent,  the  lowest  upon  the  next 
higher,  and  so  on  to  the  highest,  or  convoluted  centres  of  the 
hemispheres. 

469.  In  their  function,  the  nervous  centres  are  intermediate 


fibres,  being  aclea^uponat^heir^jijsj;al  extremities,  convey^ 
nnpressuSs^  centre;  and^  the  motor  jibres.  being 

a^ed^pon^^jn^cjntres,  convey  nerve-force  outward,  and 
produce.  mot^n^JKe^'  distal  e^remUiesT1  Lei  any  part'  of 


the  surface  of  the  body  be  touched  by  a  hot  iron,  and  mus- 
cular contraction  instantly  follows  ;  but  there  has  been  time 
enough  for  the  sensation  of  pain  to  be  conveyed  to  the  nervous 
centre,  and  for  an  impulse  to  be  sent  from  that  centre  to  the 
muscles  :  such  action  is  called  the  Reflex  Aetion^f  the  Nervaun 
System.  By  this  means  a  communication  is  established  be- 

•^X^^-N^^** 

tween  the  different  organs.  This  communication  is  never 
direct,  but  from  one  organ  inward  to  the  nervous  centre, 
then  outward  to  another  organ  :  so  are  the  different  functions 
associated  and  exercised  for  the  common  good  of  the  whole. 

470.  In  dealing  with  the  functions  of  the  Nervous  System 
we  adopt  the  following  classification  of  the  Nervous  Centres  : 
viz.  —  1st,  The  Primary  or  Ideational  Centres,  comprising  the 
gray  matter  .  of  the  convolutions  of  the  hemispheres  (446)  ; 
2d,  The  Secondary  or  Sensational  Centres,  comprising  the 
gray  matter  between  the  floors  of  the  lateral  ventricles  and 
the  decussation  of  the  pyramids  (442)  ;  3d,  The  Tertiary 
Centres,  or  Centres  of  Reflex  Action,  comprising  the  gray 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  231 

matter  of  the  spinal  cord  (441) ;  4th,  The  Quarternary  or 
Organic  Centres,  comprising  the  gray  matter  of  the  Sym- 
pathetic System  (455). 

471.  The  arrangement  of  this  system  of  centres  is  like  that 
of  a  well-ordered  body  politic.     Each  distinct  department,  or 
nerve-centre,  acts  independently  within  certain   limits,  but 
beyond  these  limits  it  is  subordinate  to  the  next   higher: 
thus,  the  Organic  Centres  are  subordinate  to  the  Keflex  or 
Spinal  Centres ;  the  Reflex,  to  the  Sensorial ;  and  all,  to  the 
Ideational  or  Supreme  Centres.      In  each  centre  the  indi- 
vidual cells  probably  differ  in  rank,  some  having  a  higher 
dignity,  some  a  lower,  but  each  its  special  appointment,  its 
assigned   duty.      Such   would   be   the   inference  from  their 
varied  form,  color,  size,  and  mode  of  branching.     There  are 
probably  important  differences  of  chemical  constitution  and 
action,  but  of  this  we  have  no  means  of  proof.     There  is, 
then,  reason  for  supposing  that  from  the  lowliest  cell  in  the 
Organic  centres,  to  that  of  highest  rank  in  the  Ideational, 
there  is  a  long  series  of  dependencies,  and,  so  nice  is  the  ad- 
justment, that  if  one  fails  to  conform  to  the  laws  of  the 
organization  the  others  must  suffer.    Slight  disturbances  may 
take  place  in  the  lower  centres  without  the  knowledge  of  the 
Supreme  Authority,  but  any  serious  matter  beyond  their  con- 
trol is  early  reported ;  this  is  the  meaning  of  pain,  weariness, 
etc.     If  the  warning  is  disregarded  at  headquarters,  there  is 
liability  to  an  open  rebellion  that  will  shake  the  system  to 
its  foundations,  and  not  unlikely  result  in  its  complete  over- 
throw.   "  The  well-being  and  power  of  the  higher  individuals 
are  entirely  dependent  upon  the  well-being  and  contentment 
of  the  humbler  workers,  which  do  so  great  a  part  of  the  daily 
work  of  life." 

472.  The  ORGANIC  or  SYMPATHETIC  CENTRES  are  not 
well  understood,  but  the  distribution  of  their  nerves  would 
indicate  that  they  exercise  a  controlling  influence  over  the 
involuntary   functions  of  digestion,   absorption,   circulation 
and   assimilation.     From  the  fact  that  these  nerves  reach 
their  ultimate  destination  supported  on  the  arterial  vessels, 


232  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

it  is  probable  that  their  influence  is  exerted  through  a  certain 
control  over  the  muscular  coat  of  the  heart  and  arteries,  thus 
hastening  or  retarding  the  course  of  the  blood,  and  increasing 
or  diminishing  its  quantity  in  various  organs.  Thus  the 
functions  of  nutrition,  secretion,  etc.,  depending  so  much 
upon  the  state  of  the  circulation,  are  made  to  sympathize 
with  each  other  very  closely;  hence  the  name,  "  Sympathetic ;> 
System  (456). 

473.  The  organic  centres  being  connected  with  the  various 
organs  by  sensitive  and  motor  nerves,  are  capable  of  an  inde- 
pendent reflex   action.     They  are   also   connected   with   the 
cerebro-spinal  system,  and  are  more  or  less  assisted  by  and 
subordinate  to  it.     In  health  the  brain  takes  no  cognizance 
of  their  action ;  when  diseased,  however,  the  centres  report 
to  the   highest   authority   by  means  of  cramps   and   other 
severely  acute  pains.     In  its  normal  action,  a  centre  seems 
to  expend  only  so  much  force  as  is  disposed  of  by  the  motor 
nerves ;  in  diseased  action  there  is  a  surplus,  which  is  con- 
veyed to  the  next  higher  centre,  to  be  disposed  of  by  its  motor 
nerves ;  if  there  is  still  a  surplus,  it  passes  on  as  before. 

474.  There  are  three  kinds  of  reflex  action  taking  place 
either  wholly  or  partially  through  the  Sympathetic  System  ; 
viz. — 1st,  The  reflex  action  from  the  internal  organs  to  the 
voluntary  muscles  and  sensitive  surfaces :  examples  are  seen 
in  the  convulsions  of  children,  caused  by  the  irritation  of  un- 
digested food  in  the  intestines ;  and  in  adults,  in  the  attacks 
of  temporary  blindness  or  confused  vision  so  often  accompany- 
ing indigestion.     2d,  The  reflex  action  from  the  sensitive  sur- 
faces to  the  involuntary  muscles  and  the  internal  organs;  as 
mental  and  moral  impressions  received  by  the  senses  disturb 
the  motions  of  the  heart  and  affect  the  circulation,  digestion 
and  secretion;  disagreeable  sights  or  odors  produce  nausea 
and  other  functional  derangements.     3d,  The  reflex  action 
between  the  internal  organs ;  as  the  associated  action  of  the 
stomach,  liver,  etc.     The  variation  in  the  capillary  circula- 
tion of  the  abdominal  viscera,  according  as  they  are  active 
or  inactive,  is  probably  referable  to  a  similar  influence. 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  233 

475.  One  marked  peculiarity  of  the  Sympathetic  System  is, 
that  its  nerves  and  ganglia  act  with  much  less  rapidity  than 
those  of  the  Cerebro-Spinal  System ;  hence,  inflammation  of 
the  internal  organs  is  not  manifest  for  several  hours  after  the 
application  of  the  exciting  cause ;  as  the  effects  of  a  chill  or 
cold  do  not  usually  follow  immediately  after  the  exposure. 
Because  of  this  tardy  action,  the  effect  remains  long  after  the 
cause  is  removed.     A  very  beautiful  example  of  the  slow 
action  of  the  sympathetic  nerves  is  seen  in  the  movements 
of  the  iris  of  the  eye.     The  ciliary  nerves  controlling  these 
movements  originate  in  the  brain,  but  pass  through,  and  are 
affected  by,  a  sympathetic  ganglion.     In  passing  from  the 
dazzling  sunshine  into  the  house,  we  are  scarcely  able  to 
distinguish  objects  about  us,  and  some  minutes  are  often  re- 
quired to  adapt  the  iris  to  the  less  amount  of  light ;  and  the 
same  slow  movement  is  evident  in  passing  from  a  less  degree 
of  light  to  a  greater.     Were  these  nerves   purely  cerebro- 
spinal,  the  action  would  take  place  instantly. 

476.  The  TERTIARY,  REFLEX  or  SPINAL  CENTRES.     The 
white,    tubular   substance  of  the   spinal  cord  connects  the 
muscles  and  integuments  below  with  the  brain  above,  and 
thus  assists  in  the  production  of  conscious  sensation   and 
voluntary   motion.     The   gray  matter   forms   nerve-centres, 
which  exert  a  general  protective  influence  over  the  whole  body. 
They  preside  over  the  involuntary  movements  of  the  limbs  and 
trunk;  if  a  finger  touch  a  heated  surface,  it  is  suddenly  with- 
drawn, and  that  without  effort  of  the  will,  and  often  in  oppo- 
sition to  it.     The  same  movement  takes  place  upon  tickling 
the  foot  of  a  person  asleep.     They  regulate  the  action  of  the 
sphincter  muscles,  as  in  the  rectum  and  bladder.     They  exer- 
cise a  certain  control  over  the  changes  of  secretion,  nutrition,  etc., 
as  is  manifest  in  cases  of  disease.     Thus  we  see  that  many 
human  activities  are  performed  by  the  reflex  action  of  the 
spinal  centres,  inherent  in  their  natural  constitution. 

477.  They  are,   however,  capable  of  an   acquired   reflex 
action,  which  is  matured  through  experience.     An  act  or 
un  association  of  acts  becomes  easier  to  them  by  repetition. 

20* 


234  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE. 

This  acquired  power  of  reflex  action  has  been  accounted  for 
by  a  theory  *  which  is  at  least  beautifully  illustrative  of  the 
facts  in  the  case.  Every  display  of  energy  in  the  nerve-cells 
causes  a  change  or  waste  of  nervous  element  which  is  re- 
paired by  nutrition.  This  theory  assumes  that  the  character 
of  the  waste  determines  the  character  of  the  deposit;  that  the 
particle  deposited  is  necessarily  endowed  according  to  the 
particular  kind  of  activity  manifested,  and  that  this  endow- 
ment inclines  the  particle  to  the  same  kind  of  activity  again. 
By  each  repetition,  the  tendency  becomes  stronger  and  more 
definite,  till,  after  a  longer  or  shorter  series  of  repetitions,  the 
action  becomes  automatic. 

478.  When  a  certain  class  of  movements  have,  after  many 
voluntary  efforts,  become  associated,  they  become  perceptibly 
more  and  more  easy.  Walking  is  at  first  a  very  conscious 
and  voluntary  act;  but  it  may  become  so  far  reflex  and 
automatic  that  one  in  a  profound  abstraction  may  continue 
to  walk  without  being  at  all  conscious  where  he  is  going,  and 
when  he  wakes  from  his  revery  may  find  himself  in  some 
other  place  than  that  which  he  intended  to  visit.  Multi- 
tudes of  our  daily  acts  are  the  result  of  this  acquired  reflex 
action  of  the  spinal  centres.  The  wisdom  of  such  an  arrange- 
ment is  very  evident,  for  but  little  could  be  accomplished  if 
acts  became  no  easier  by  repetition  and  association.  Con- 
scious efforts  of  the  will  soon  produce  exhaustion,  while  the 
automatic  acts  of  which  we  are  speaking  occasion  compara- 
tively little  weariness.  We  often  say  of  certain  rounds  of 
duties  that  they  do  not  weary  us,  for  we  are  accustomed  to 
them.  In  speaking  of  this  acquired  power  of  which  the 
spinal  centres  are  capable,  Dr.  Maudsley  says,  "  Like  the 
brain,  the  spinal  cord  has  its  memory.  A  spinal  cord  without 
memory  would  be  an  idiotic  spinal  cord,  incapable  of  culture 
— a  degenerate  nervous  centre  in  which  the  organization  of 
special  faculties  could  not  take  place.  It  is  the  lesson  of  a 
good  education  so  consciously  to  exercise  it  in  reference  to 

*  Dr.  Maudsley. 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  235 

its  surroundings  that  it  shall  act  automatically  in  accordance 
with  the  relations  of  the  individual  in  his  particular  walk 
of  life." 

479.  The  SENSATIONAL  CENTRES,  including  the  gray  mat- 
ter of  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  of  the  base  of  the  brain  as 
far  as  the  lateral  ventricles,  consist  chiefly  of  the  nervous 
centres  of  the  higher  or  special  senses,  as  sight,  hearing  (442), 
etc.  Any  one  of  these  senses  is  quickly  destroyed  by  destroy- 
ing its  ganglion :  the  loss  of  the  quadrigeminal  body  destroys 
the  sight  as  effectually  as  putting-  out  the  eyes.  That  these 
centres  have  an  independent  reflex  action  may  be  seen  by 
the  involuntary  closure  of  the  eyelid  when  a  strong  light 
falls  upon  the  eye,  or  by  the  involuntary  contortions  of  the 
face  when  an  article  is  sour  or  bitter  to  the  taste.  These  are 
examples  of  natural  reflex  action,  but,  like  the  spinal  cord, 
these  centres  are  capable  of  an  acquired  reflex  action ;  as  in 
the  articulation  of  words  upon  seeing  their  signs ;  adapting 
the  movements  of  the  body  to  the  rhythm  of  music,  in 
dancing,  marching,  etc.  Most  of  the  sensations  of  the  special 
senses  become  clear  and  definite  only  after  a  long  course  of 
training ;  for  instance,  the  visual  sensation  of  the  adult  is  a 
very  different  matter  from  that  of  the  child  whose  eyes  have 
recently  opened  upon  the  world.  "  The  sensation  of  the  culti- 
vated sense  thus  sums  up,  as  it  were,  a  thousand  experiences, 
as  one  word  often  contains  the  accumulated  acquisitions  of 
generations." 

480.  In  speaking  of  the  acquired  reflex  action  of  the  spinal 
centres,  we  referred  to  the  theory  that  a  relic,  or  residuum,  of 
every  activity  remained  in  the  nerve-cell  as  a  special  endow- 
ment ;  that  perhaps  the  character  of  the  activity  determined 
the  character  of  the  nutritive  deposit.    This  theory  is  equally 
applicable  to  the  sensational  centres,  and  equally  illustrative 
of  the  certain  fact  that  acts  of  this  class  are  rendered  easier 
by  repetition. 

481.  The  sensational  centres  are  excited  to  activity  not 
only  by  impressions  from  the  organs  of  the  special  senses, 
but  by  sensations  from  within  the  body,  both  from  the  organic 


236  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE. 

and  ideational  centres.  Of  the  former,  examples  are  afforded 
when  the  higher  nervous  centres  are  weakened  by  disease,  or 
when  the  organic  stimuli  have  an  unnatural  activity,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  intemperate  man. 

482.  The  IDEATIONAL  CENTRES  seem  to  have  the  power 
of  fashioning  into  ideas  the  impressions  received  by  the  sensa- 
tional centres.     When  the  various  properties  of  an  object  are 
presented  by  the  different  senses,  these  centres  reject  the  un- 
essential, and,  selecting  the  essential,  mould  them  into  an 
organic  unity,  or  idea.     By  means  of  the  sensorial  centres 
and  nerves,  we  may  gain  perceptions  or  impressions  of  the 
qualities  of  a  rose,  but  these  would  be  isolated,  and  we  should 
have  no  clear  and  definite  idea  of  the  rose,  without  the  mould- 
ing and  vivifying  influences  of  the  ideational  centres. 

483.  Different  persons  obtain  very  different  ideas  of  the 
same  object ;  the  character  of  the  idea  being  dependent  upon 
the  character  of  the  organization  both  of  the  sensational  and 
ideational  centres,  and  the  character  of  the  organization  upon 
natural  endowment,  or  inherited  organization,  and  also  upon 
the  education  received. 

484.  The  ideational  centres,  like  those  already  described, 
are  capable  of  an  independent,  reflex  action,  which  may  be 
manifested   in   different    ways:    1st,   This   may   take   place 
through  the  motor  tract,  thus  giving  rise  to  what  have  been 
named  ideomotor  movements.     This  energy  may  be  exerted 
either  upon  the  voluntary  or  involuntary  muscles,  and  in  the 
former  case  either  with  or  without  consciousness:  the  idea 
that  vomiting  must  take  place  when  a  qualmish  feeling  exists 
will  hasten  or  even  produce  vomiting,  affording  an  example 
of  the  reflex  action  of  an  idea  upon  the  involuntary  muscles, 
conformable  to  what  has  been  said  of  the  subordination  of 
the  organic  nervous  centres  to  those  of  the   cerebro-spinal 
system.     Examples  of  the  reflex  action  of  ideas  upon  our 
voluntary  muscles  are  seen  every  hour  of  our  waking  life ; 
these  may  be  unconscious,  as  is  seen  in  most  persons  who 
talk  to  themselves,  or  they  may  be  conscious,  and  yet  without 
the  intervention  of  the  will,  as  when  a  quick-tempered  indi- 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  237 

vidual  quickly  resents  an  insult  by  a  blow.  2d,  The  reflex 
action  of  an  ideational  nerve-cell  may  not  only  operate 
downward  upon  the  muscular  system,  but  downward  upon 
the  sensory  centres:  the  idea  of  a  nauseous  taste  may  excite 
the  sensation  to  such  a  degree  as  to  produce  vomiting.  The 
action  of  ideas  upon  our  sensory  ganglia  is  indeed  a  regular 
part  of  our  mental  life,  for  the  co-operation  of  sensory  activity 
is  necessary  to  clear  conception  and  representation,  and  by  it 
we  may  see  our  own  ideas  as  actual  images.  Those  great 
writers  who  delight  us  with  their  vivid  descriptions  of  scenery 
or  events  possess  this  power  in  a  high  degree.  3d,  Another 
very  important  reflex  action  of  these  centres  is  that  which 
modifies  the  secretions  and  nutrition :  a  flow  of  saliva  may  be 
produced  by  the  thought  of  food,  or  a  flow  of  tears  by  a  sym- 
pathetic idea.  4th,  There  may  be  in  these  centres  a  reflex 
action  among  the  cells  themselves.  One  cell  reacts  to  a 
stimulus  from  a  neighboring  cell,  then  transfers  or  reflects 
this  energy  to  another.  This  may  be  the  condition  of  activity 
among  these  cells  during  that  process  of  the  mind  which  we 
call  Reflection. 

485.  These  ideational  centres  are  also  the  seat  of  the  Emo- 
tions.    When  an  idea  is  attended  with  some  feeling,  either 
pleasant  or  unpleasant,  it  is  so  far  Emotional;  and  when  the 
feeling  preponderates,  the  idea  is  obscured,  and  the  state  of 
mind  is  then  called  an  Emotion,  or,  when  rising  above  the 
ordinary  degree  and  becoming  impatient  of  restraint,  a  Pas- 
sion.    The  capacity  for  emotion  depends  essentially  upon  the 
range  and  vigor  of  ideas.     The  man  of  great  strength  of 
mind,  as  a  Milton  or  Napoleon,  is  capable  of  deeper  emotion 
than  the  man  of  dwarfed  and  puny  intellect.   Indeed,  just  here 
lies,  in  no  small  degree,  the  secret  of  his  superior  power. 
The  same  stimulus  may  at  one  time  produce  simply  an  idea, 
and  at  another  time  an  emotion,  according  to  the  condition 
of  the  nerve-cells. 

486.  Every  centre  of  idea  is  also  a  centre  of  Volitionary  re- 
action.    When  an  idea  acts  directly  downward,  we  call  the 
effect  ideomotor ;  but  when  there  is  deliberation  or  reflection 


238  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

delaying  the  action,  and  it  afterward  takes  place  downward, 
we  call  the  effect  volitional.  Volition  is  also  exercised  in  pre- 
venting as  well  as  in  producing  an  action. 

487.  The  exercise  of  the   Will  is  the  highest  energy  of 
which  the  supreme   centres   are  capable.     Within    certain 
limits,  the  ideas   and   emotions   are  subject  to  its  control. 
Suppose  a  being  endowed  with  the  intellectual  and  emotional 
natures,  but  not  with  the  will :  though  possessing  the  intelli- 
gence of  a  man,  his  capacities  for  action  would  be  inferior  to 
those  of  the  brutes,  for,  like  them,  his  actions  would  be  the 
result  of  mere  sensational  impulses,  and  yet  he  would  be 
destitute  of  that  natural  guide  of  brutes  which  we  call  in- 
stinct.    This   represents  the   wretched    condition  of  a  man 
whose  will  is  by  any  means  so  enfeebled  that  it  fails  to  con- 
trol the  mental  and  physical  powers. 

488.  The  power  of  the  will  depends  both  upon  the  inherited 
organization  and  also  upon  the  training  it  has  received,  for 
volitions,  like  sensations  and  ideas,  become  more  easy  and 
definite  by  repetition.   A  naturally  weak  will  may  be  greatly 
strengthened  by  due  care  and  training.     According  to  the 
theory  before  mentioned,  each  volition  leaves  its  relic,  trace 
or   residuum   which   inclines  .the  portion  of  nerve-element 
exercised  to  a  like  activity  again.     If  we  accustom  ourselves 
to  decide  promptly,  to  act  energetically  and  to  carry  out  our 
purposes  in  the  many  smaller  and  less  important  affairs  of 
life,  we  gain  a  power  of  will  which  may  be  carried  into 
higher  departments   of   action   and   into   circumstances   of 
greater  embarrassment  and  difficulty. 

489.  The  Will  bears  very  important  relations  to  the  Emo- 
tions.    If  they  are  aflowed  to  react  independently,  as  is  their 
natural  tendency,  they  weaken  the  will ;   if  duly  controlled 
and  co-ordinated,  they  strengthen  it.     The  passionate  nature 
of  the  child  may,  by  proper  training,  become  a  potent  force 
for  good  in  after  years,  "giving  a  white  heat,  as  it  were, 
to   the   expression   of  thought,    an   intensity  to   the   will." 
Untrained,  it  will  become  a  no  less   potent  force  for  evil, 
and  the  individual  under  the  mastery  of  his  passions  will 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  239 

be  tossed  about  as  helplessly  as  a  boat  in  the  rapids  of 
Niagara. 

490.  The  free  action  of  the  will  requires  an  unimpeded 
association  of  ideas,  and  the  ease  and  completeness  of  such  an 
association  depends  upon  the  condition  of  nervous  element, 
very  slight  disorders  of  which  declare  themselves  in  the  de- 
terioration of  the  will-power.     As  in  the  spinal  centres  dis- 
turbance of  the  nerve-element  weakens  their  control  over 
movements,  so  in  the  ideational  centres  disordered   nerve- 
element  is  quickly  manifested  in  the  loss  of  will-power ;  and 
as  in  great  disorder  of  the  spinal  centres  all  co-ordinating 
power  is  lost  and  convulsions  ensue,  so  in  great  disorders 
of  the  ideational  centres  all  co-ordinating  power  over  the 
thoughts  and  feelings  is  lost,  convulsive  reactions  of  the  cells 
take  place,  and  the  individual  becomes  insane. 

491.  We  have  seen  that  the  mind  is  closely  united  and  yet 
distinct  from  the  material  organ  through  which  it  acts — de- 
pendent for  its  manifestations,  but  independent  in  essence. 
So  intimate  is  the  union,  that  the  body  exercises  a  powerful 
influence  in  leading  us  upward  into  a  true  and  higher  life,  or 
downward  into  a  low  and  sensual  existence.     What  this  in- 
fluence shall  be  depends  somewhat  upon  inherited  organiza- 
tion, but  more  upon  education.    Accepting  the  theory  already 
advanced  as  at  least  illustrative,  we  see  that  if  the  thoughts, 
feelings  and  volitions  are  pure  and  true  and  good,  their  im- 
pressions or  residua  remaining  in  the  nerve-cells  are  of  the 
same  character,  and  tend  to  give  a  right  direction  to  the 
future  activities  of  these  cells.     If  the  thoughts,  feelings  and 
volitions  are  evil  in  nature,  the  impressions  or  residua  will 
also  be  evil,  inclining  to  evil  activities  in  the  future.     When 
we  resist  a  temptation  to  wrong  action,  then  we  not  only 
avoid  the  particular  evil,  but  lay  up  that  which  will  render 
the  next  resistance  easier  and  more  natural.     If  we  yield  to 
the   temptation,  we   are   not   only  guilty  of  the  particular 
wrong,  but  lay  up  that  which  will  make  resistance  more  diffi- 
cult or  yielding  more  easy  and  natural  for  the  future.     When 
a  man  sets  his  heart  to  do  right,  all  his  physical  being  struggles 


240          ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

to  give  him  aid ;  and  when  he  sets  his  heart  to  do  wrong,  its 
energies  are  expended  in  dragging  him  downward. 

492.  The  visible  impress  which  the  workings  of  the  mind 
leave  upon  the  body  is  worthy  our  notice.     The  character  of 
the  man  is  declared  by  the  lines  of  his  muscles,  which  tell  no 
lies.     Especially  is  this  true  of  the  muscles  of  the  face.     Let 
him  narrow  his  soul  by  penuriousness,  become  the  victim  of 
rasping  jealousy,  wear  the  nettles  of  envy  against  his  heart, 
or  be  the  slave  of  defiling  lust,  and  in  spite  of  any  natural 
comeliness  or  studied  concealment,  his  true  character  will  be 
proclaimed  to  all  who  have  learned  aught  of  the  language 
of  the  muscles.     "  Be  sure  your  sin  will  find  you  out/'  says 
He  who  has  made  the  fleshly  lineaments  to  reveal  the  most 
hidt?  11  vice.     The  more  secret  the  viciousness,  the  deeper  is 
the  impress.     But  if  the  spirit  of  evil  thus  leaves  the  traces 
of  its  blackened  pen  upon  the  face,  the  spirit  of  goodness 
writes  thereon  in  no  less  legible  characters  of  light.     Purity 
of  heart,  nobleness  of  purpose,  restful  ness  of  soul,  soften, 
irradiate,  spiritualize  the  outer  man,  giving  a  higher  beauty 
than   that  of   form   or  complexion,  even  to   him    who    is 
wrinkled  by  years,  bowed  by  infirmity  and  scarred  by  the 
battles  of  life. 

§  47.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. — Two  Classes  of  Agencies 
Affecting  the  Health  of  the  Nervous  System.  Natural  Heritage.  Im- 
portance of  the  Physical  Agency — Air — Diet — Exercise  and  Sleep. 
The  Effect  of  Mental  Impressions  on  the  Body.  Mental  Exercise.  He- 
creation  and  Amusement.  Harmonious  Development  of  the  Different 
Mental  Powers. 

493.  We  have  seen  that  different  organs  of  the  body  are 
entirely  dependent  for  functional  action  upon  the  stimulus 
afforded  by  the  nervous  system ;  and  since  this  is  the  mate- 
rial organization  through  which  the  mind  acts,  we  are  led  to 
the  inevitable  conclusion  that  the  physical  condition  of  this 
system  must  affect,  more  or  less,  the  mental  manifestations. 
It  becomes,  then,  a  matter  of  primary  importance  that  we 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  241 

understand  the  conditions  essential  to  the  health  of  this  sys- 
tem, especially  as  suffering  from  nervous  disease  exceeds  that 
of  other  diseases,  as  the  delicacy  of  the  organization  exceeds 
that  of  other  organizations  of  the  body. 

494.  In  considering  the  hygiene  of  the  nervous  system,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  reference  both  to  physical  and  mental 
agencies.     The  highest  health  and  vigor  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem  doubtless  require — 1st,  A  sound  nervous  organization 
by  inheritance.     2d,  A  nutrition  equal  to  the  demands  of  re- 
pair and  growth.     3d,  The  harmonious  action  of  the  various 
mental  powers. 

495.  1st,  A  SOUND   ORGANIZATION    BY    INHERITANCE. 
"  Each  of  us  is  only  the  footing-up  of  a  double  column  of 
figures  that  goes  back  to  the  first  pair,"  is  the  striking  ex- 
pression of  a  great  truth.     Every-day  observation  shows  that 
children   inherit   not   only  the   features,   but   the   physical, 
mental  and  moral  constitution  of  their  parents.     Even  those 
utterly  ignorant  of  the   laws  of  transmission   are   wont  to 
estimate  the  child  according  to  its  family ;  favorably,  if  of  a 
"good  family"  or  "good  blood;"  unfavorably,  if  of  a  "bad 
family  "or  "bad  blood." 

Every  formation  of  body,  internal  and  external,  all  intel- 
lectual endowments  and  aptitudes,  and  all  moral  qualities, 
are  or  may  be  transmissible  from  parent  to  child.  If  one 
generation  is  missed,  the  qualities  may  appear  in  the  next 
generation.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  not  only  the 
natural  constitution  of  the  parents  may  be  inherited,  but  their 
acquired  habits  of  life,  whether  virtuous  or  vicious,  but  espe- 
cially is  this  true  of  vice.  Even  when  the  identical  vice  does 
not  appear,  there  is  a  morbid  organization  and  a  tendency  to 
some  vice  akin  to  it.  Not  only  is  the  evil  tendency  trans- 
mitted, but  what  was  the  simple  practice,  the  voluntarily 
adopted  and  cherished  vice  of  the  parent,  becomes  the  pas- 
sion, the  overpowering  impulse  of  the  child. 

496.  M.  Morel  sketches   the  history  of  four  generations 
as  follows:  "First  Generation. — The  father  was  a  habitual 
drunkard,  and  was  killed  in  a  public-house  brawl.     Second 

21  L 


1542  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

Generation. — The  son  inherited  his  father's  habits,  which 
gave  rise  to  attacks  of  mania,  terminating  in  paralysis  and 
death.  Third  Generation. — The  grandson  was  strictly  sober, 
but  full  of  hypochondriacal  and  imaginary  fears  of  persecu- 
tions, etc.,  and  had  homicidal  tendencies.  Fourth  Genera- 
tion.— The  fourth  in  descent  had  very  limited  intelligence, 
and  had  an  attack  of  madness  when  sixteen  years  old,  termi- 
nating in  stupidity  nearly  amounting  to  idiocy ;  with  him  the 
race  probably  becomes  extinct." 

497.  Says  a  learned  physician,  after  long  and  close  ob- 
servation of  the  evil  effects  of  tobacco :  "  If  the  evil  ended 
with  the  individual  who,  by  the  indulgence  of  a  pernicious 
custom,  injures  his  own  .health  and  impairs  his  faculties  of 
mind  and  body,  he  might  be  left  to  his  enjoyment,  his  fool's 
paradise,  unmolested.     This,  however,  is  not  the  case.    In  no 
instance  is  the  sin  of  the  father  more  strikingly  visited  upon 
the  children  than  the  sin  of  tobacco-smoking.     The  enerva- 
tion, the  hysteria,  the  insanity,  the  dwarfish  deformities,  the 
consumption,  the  suffering  lives  and  early  deaths  of  the  chil- 
dren  of  inveterate  smokers   bear   ample  testimony  to   the 
feebleness  and  unsoundness  of  the  constitution  transmitted 
by  this  pernicious  habit." 

498.  Should  we  trace  the  effects  of  the  whole  list  of  vices, 
it  would  be  with  equally  sad  results ;  even  of  the  great  love 
of  money -getting,  the  celebrated  Dr.  Maudsley  says :  "  I  can- 
not but  think,  after  what  I  have  seen,  that  the  extreme  pas- 
sion for  getting  rich,  absorbing  the  whole  energies  of  a  life, 
does  predispose  to  mental  degeneration  in  the  offspring,  either 
to  moral  defect,  or  to  moral  and  intellectual  deficiency,  or  to 
outbreaks  of  insanity." 

499.  Any  kind  of  nervous  disease  in  the  parents,  whether 
natural  or  acquired,  seems  to  predispose  to  innate  feeble- 
ness   in   the   child.     From   this   instability  of  nervous   ele- 
ment,  the    slightest    irritation    often    produces    convulsions 
in  the  young  child  and  loss  of  equilibrium  in  the  adult. 
Such  a  natural   constitution  may  be  improved  by  a  judi- 
cious education  and  strict  obedience  to  physical  and  men- 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  243 

tal  laws;    but  the  original   defect   can   never   be   entirely 
removed. 

500.  2d,  A  NUTRITION    EQUAL   TO   THE   DEMANDS  OF 
REPAIR  AND  GROWTH.     The  relation  of  the  nervous  centres 
to  the  blood  is  the  same  in  kind  as  that  between  other  parts 
of  the  body  and  their  blood-supply.    Great  waste  is  produced 
by  nervous  action ;  hence,  the  centres  are  very  largely  sup- 
plied with   blood-vessels,  especially  the   Ideational  centres. 
The  activity  of  ideas  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  active 
•flow  of  blood  to  the  nerve-cells.     Activity  of  thought  invites 
the  blood  which,  in  turn,  is  so  necessary  to  activity.     The 
nerve-centres,  then,  must  be  supplied  with  the  proper  quality 
and   quantity  of  blood ;    hence,   whatever  deteriorates   the 
blood  impairs  the  health  of  the  nervous  system.     It  is  evi- 
dent, then, that — 

501.  The  nervous  system  may  be  impaired  by  impure  air. 
Everybody  knows  that  bad  air  injures  the  lungs,  but  few 
realize  that,  on  the  whole,  it  injures  the  brain  still  more. 
As  the  nerve-tissue  is  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  body, 
it  soonest  feels  the  evil  effects  of  imperfectly  oxygenated 
blood.     (See  RESPIRATION.) 

502.  The  nervous  system  may  be  impaired  by  improper  diet. 
We  are  wont  to  believe  that  improper  diet  may  affect  the 
digestive  organs,  but  seldom  consider  the  mental  and  moral 
effects  of  such  diet.     Improper  food  poisons  the  blood,  and 
thus  the  nerve-centres  are  cheated  of  their  nutriment  and 
also  poisoned ;  hence,  the  ideas  become  confused,  the  emo- 
tions  morbid  and  the  will  weakened.     The  whole   man  is 
crippled,  physically,  mentally  and  morally.     It  is  an  indis- 
putable fact  that  bad  bread,  for  instance,  may  thus  have  a 
very  immoral  influence.     Those   much   engaged   in  mental 
labor  suffer  most  from  bad  diet.     No  teacher  can  teach  well, 
no  lawyer  can  plead  well,  no  physician  can  practice  well,  no 
minister  can    preach  well,  who   habitually  takes   improper 
food.     (See  DIGESTION.) 

503.  If  such  be  the  effect  of  improper  food,  what  shall  we 
say  of  such  poisons  as  alcohol,  opium,  haschish,  tobacco,  etc.,  _ 


244  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND   HYGIENE. 

which  act  so  directly  and  powerfully  upon  the  nervous  sys- 
tem ?  The  same  poison  does  not  equally  affect  all  the  nerve- 
centres  ;  thus,  strychnine  acts  upon  the  spinal  centres,  but 
not  <ihe  cerebral ;  haschish,  upon  the  sensory  centres,  giving 
rise  to  hallucinations ;  alcohol,  upon  the  cerebral  centres  par- 
ticu^rly.  The  alcoholic  poison  first  produces  an  increased 
activity  of  the  muscles,  then  alternate  exaltation  and  de- 
pression, both  physical  and  mental ;  finally,  stupor,  relaxa- 
tion of  the  muscles  and  deep  sleep.  These  symptoms  are 
transitory ;  but  let  the  poisoning  process  be  continued,  and 
true  delirium,  so  well  known  as  "  delirium  tremens,"  follows, 
and  at  length  what  is  known  as  "  chronic  alcoholism ;"  and 
white  intoxication  lasts  a  few  hours,  and  delirium  tremens  a 
few  -days  or  weeks,  chronic  alcoholism  spreads  its  baneful  in- 
fluence over  years,  unless  death  prevents  the  full  develop- 
ment of  the  tragedy.  The  victim  of  alcoholic  poisoning  is 
equally  enfeebled  in  body  and  mind.  The  nervous  system 
becomes  exhausted,  the  moral  sentiments  perverted,  the  will- 
pov^r  broken,  and  he  seems  powerless  to  cease  from  the  fatal 
habit  which  has  produced  the  change. 

504.  With  the  opium-eater  the  diseases  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem declare  themselves  even  more  rapidly  than  with  the 
drunkard.  Says  JVL  Morel :  "  Given  the  period  at  which  a 
person  begins  to  smoke  opium,  and  it  is  easy  to  predicate  the 
time  of  his  death ;  his  days  are  numbered." 

605.  Tobacco  is  one  of  the  most  virulent  poisons.  It  soothes 
the  nerves  temporarily,  only  to  leave  them  more  enfeebled 
and  irritable. 

Even  excessive  use  of  tea  and  coffee  may  prove  disastrous 
to  the  health  of  the  nervous  system. 

506.  The  nervous  system  may  be  impaired  by  want  of  physical 
exercise.  Among  other  agencies  that  affect  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, none  exert  a  wider  influence  than  bodily  exercise.  It 
seems  to  be  required  to  complete  the  change  which  the  blood 
undergoes  while  passing  through  the  lungs  and  skin,  without 
which  the  waste  of  nerve-element  could  not  be  repaired.  In 
persons  who  are  merely  sedentary,  having  little  occasion  for 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  .        245 

active  thought,  this  want  of  exercise  is  sufficiently  mis- 
chievous ;  but  when  there  is  great  mental  activity,  the  mis- 
chief is  vastly  increased.  Thousands  of  ministers,  lawyers, 
those  who  sit  in  the  bank  and  counting-room,  shorten  their 
days  because  of  this  neglect ;  especially  is  this  the  case  in 
America.  The  English  nobility,  notwithstanding  their  many 
indulgences,  are  a  long-lived  race,  and  this  is  doubtless  owing 
to  their  spending  so  much  time  in  open-air  exercise  (208). 

507.  The  nervous  system  may  become  impaired  by  taking  too 
little  sleep.  "  Sleep  knits  up  the  raveled  structure  "  of  nervous 
element;  for  during  sleep,  organic  assimilation  is  restoring 
what  has  been  expended  in  functional  energy.  A  periodical 
renewal  of  nervous  energy  as  often  as  once  a  day  is  an  insti- 
tution of  Nature.  Among  the  wise  arrangements  of  the 
Creator,  none  harmonizes  with  the  wants  of  the  system  more 
perfectly  than  the  alternation  of  day  and  night.  The  amount 
of  sleep  necessary  depends  upon  the  age,  health,  natural 
temperament  and  occupation  of  the  individual.  The  more 
rapid  the  exhaustion  of  nervous  energy  from  any  cause,  the 
more  sleep  will  be  required.  The  young  and  the  aged  need 
more  sleep  than  the  person  of  middle  life;  the  sick,  more 
than  the  well ;  those  engaged  in  mental  pursuits,  more  than 
those  wearied  by  manual  labor ;  persons  of  great  sensibility, 
more  than  the  sluggish  natures  whose  normal  condition  is 
more  nearly  allied  to  sleep ;  woman,  more  than  man.  We 
may  say  in  general  that  the  time  should  not  be  less  than 
from  six  to  eight  hours,  and  most  persons  require  a  longer 
period.  The  time,  however,  must  be  proportioned  to  the 
need. 

Among  the  more  affluent  classes,  the  customs  of  the  times 
are  quite  incompatible  with  those  habits  of  sleep  which  are 
essential  to  mental  vigor.  Where  amusements  are  pursued 
till  late  hours,  night  after  night,  the  nervous  system  greatly 
suffers,  and  every  department  of  the  mind  becomes  un- 
healthy. The  man  who,  eager  to  become  rich,  takes  time 
from  his  sleep  for  business  purposes,  draws  from  his  brain 
capital.  The  mother — alas!  here  we  must  stop.  Mothers 

21* 


246 

are  the.  one  class  who  hardly  get  any  rest  till  the  "  blessed 
Father  takes  them  in  his  arms  and  gives  his  beloved  sleep." 

508.  3d,  HARMONIOUS  ACTION  OF  THE  VARIOUS  MEN- 
TAL  POWERS.     That  the   bodily   organs   may   be   directly 
affected   by  impressions   purely  mental  does   not   admit  of 
doubt.     Of  this  fact  the  skillful  physician  never  loses  sight ; 
for  a  hopeful,  healthful  influence  of  the  mind  may  be  made 
a  remedial  agency  quite  as  powerful  as  that  of  drugs  and 
plasters. 

509.  Regular  and  systematic  mental  exercise  is  essential  to 
the  health  of  nerve-tissue.    Exercise  increases  the  flow  of  blood 
to  the  active  part.     We  have  seen  this  to  be  the  case  in  the 
muscle,  and  that  by  use  it  is  both  enlarged  and  strengthened. 
In  like  manner  the  nerve-tissue  needs  exercise ;  and  as  the 
gymnast  becomes  expert,  not  by  spasmodic  muscular  efforts, 
but  by  accurate,  persistent  drill,  so  must  the  mental  athlete 
gain  his  power  by  the  regular  performance  of  such  exercise 
as  he  is  able  to  bear.     The  gymnast  at  first  feels  pain  in  his 
muscles,  but  he  has  only  to  persevere,  with  proper  intervals 
of  rest,  and  what  was  at  first  so  difficult  becomes  easy,  while 
power  is  gained  for  severer  feats.     So  the  person  unaccus- 
tomed to  mental  gymnastics  feels  headache  and  confusion  at 
first,  but  frequent  repetition  will  make  easy  and  natural  the 
very  thoughts  which  struggled  so  painfully  into  existence, 
and  the  nerve-tissue  will  gain  the  firmness  which  increases 
its  capability  of  action.     Under  such  a  course  of  training, 
the  change  in  the  brain-tissue  is  often  so  great  as  to  modify 
perceptibly  the  form  of  the  head. 

510.  Says  Dr.  Kay :  "  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that, 
of  all  the  means  for  preserving  health,  there  is  nothing  more 
sure,  or  better  suited  to  a  greater  variety  of  persons,  than 
habits  of  regular  and  systematic  mental  occupation  of  some 
dignity  and  worth.     In  this  proposition  I  would  embrace 
all  those  kinds  of  employment  which  pass  under  the  general 
name  of  business,  and  which,  little  as  we  are  disposed  to 
recognize  the  fact,  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  health  of 
the  mind  that  food,  exercise,  etc.,  do  to  the  health  of  the 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  247 

body.     Work  is  the  condition  of  our  being  as  active  and 
progressive  creatures." 

Employment  which  is  steadily  pursued  as  a  part  of  the 
established  routine  of  life,  and  felt  to  be,  in  some  degree, 
a  matter  of  necessity,  has  an  effect  on  the  mind  far  more 
salutary  than  that  which  depends  on  the  impulse  of  the  mo- 
ment, and  is  determined  by  no  sense  of  necessity,  no  force 
of  habit. 

511.  The  saddest  effects  of  the  absence  of  stated  useful  em- 
ployment are  seen  among  women  of  easy  circumstances.     "It 
is  a  poor  view  of  woman's  duties  and  capacities  that  confines 
her  to  a  little  busy  idleness,  because  the  chances  of  fortune 
have  placed  her  beyond  the  necessity  of  earning  a  living; 
and  they  must  have  but  a  narrow  view  of  the  exigencies  of 
social  life  who  believe  that  any  woman  of  tolerable  health 
and  strength  may  not  find  abundant  opportunities  of  that 
kind  of  work  which  affords  no  other  recompense  than  the 
consciousness  of  doing  good,  and  therefore  to  be  done,  if  done 
at  all,  by  those  who  can  dispense  with  every  other  compen- 
sation.    A  life  of  idleness  and  luxurious  ease  can  be  no  more 
honorable  to  one  sex  than  to  the  other,  and  we  know  very 
well  that  in  a  man  it  creates  no  claims  upon  the  respect  and 
confidence  of  the  community." 

The  little  accomplishments  of  needlework,  so  generally 
diffused,  cannot  be  dignified  with  the  name  of  work.  Many 
a  mind,  liberally  endowed,  from  want  of  mental  exertion 
becomes  dwarfed,  or  may  end  in  mental  depression,  particu- 
larly if  ill  health  or  deejf  affliction  throws  its  weight  into  the 
scale. 

512.  The  amount  of  exercise  should  be  adapted  to  the  health 
and  age  of  the  individual.     If  from  any  cause  the  nervous 
system  be  weakened,  an  amount  of  exercise  which  would  be 
quite  harmless  to  one  in  health  may  prove  disastrous.     The 
nerve- tissue  of  children  and  youth  needs  the  same  care  as  has 
been  shown  requisite  for  other  tissues,  and  overwork,  that  in 
the  adult  is  followed  by  fatigue,  easily  removed  by  rest,  in 
the  child  may  result  in  irreparable  injury.     At  this  period, 


248  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY  AND    HYGIENE. 

the  tissue  is  soft  and  yielding,  and  when  the  blood-vessels 
become  long  distended  by  great  activity,  they  may  become 
permanently  enlarged,  and  permanent  congestion  produced. 

Parents  and  teachers  should  not  fail  to  remember  that 
there  are  important  differences  in  the  quality  of  different 
brains.  In  some  children  the  mental  reaction  to  impressions 
is  sluggish  and  incomplete;  in  others,  the  reaction,  though 
slow,  is  quite  complete ;  in  others,  again,  the  reaction  is 
rapid  and  lively,  but  evanescent,  so  that,  though  quick  at 
perception,  they  retain  ideas  with  difficulty ;  while  in  others 
there  is  that  just  equilibrium  between  the  internal  and  external 
in  which  the  reaction  is  exactly  adequate  to  the  impression. 
These  differences  should  be  taken  into  the  account,  and  the 
dull  intellect  roused,  while  that  unduly  active  should  be  re- 
strained. It  is  too  often  the  case,  however,  that  exactly  the 
opposite  course  is  pursued.  The  fond  parents  and  ambitious 
teachers,  misled  by  the  early  promise  of  genius,  excite  the 
child  to  new  activity  by  unceasing  cultivation  and  the 
never-failing  stimulus  of  praise.  For  a  time  the  progress  of 
the  child  is  all  they  could  desire,  but  in  exact  proportion  as 
the  picture  of  the  future  brightens  to  their  fancy,  the  proba- 
bility of  its  realization  lessens.  The  brain,  worn  out  by  pre- 
mature exertion,  loses  its  tone,  leaving  the  mental  powers 
weakened  and  depressed  for  the  remainder  of  life.  The  ex- 
pected prodigy  is  then  outstripped  by  many  whose  dull  out- 
set promised  Mm  an  easy  victory. 

513.  We  often  hear  the  saying,  "  The  valedictorian  is 
never  heard  of  after  Commencement-day ;"  and  it  is  too 
often  true  when  the  honors  are  gained  at  an  early  age.  The 
present  tendency  is  to  treat  the  mind  like  a  race-horse,  goad- 
ing it  on  to  make  a  certain  round  in  a  given  time,  and  that 
before  the  brain-tissue  has  gained  the  consolidation  requisite 
for  severe  exertion.  Mary  Lyon,  with  her  characteristic 
wisdom,  refused  to  admit  to  the  Mount  Holyoke  course  of 
study  girls  under  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  from  her  long  list 
of  applicants  usually  selected  those  not  less  than  eighteen. 

Let  the  material  organ  of  the  mind  be  subjected  to  a 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  249 

systematic,  thorough,  gymnastic  training,  taking  for  it  the 
necessary  time,  and  the  firm,  educated  tissue  will  be  fitted  for 
enduring  labor  in  later  years;  but  let  it  be  weakened  in 
youth,  and  it  must  ever  work  under  a  burden,  if  indeed  it 
work  at  all. 

Moderation  in  mental  exertion  is  also  a  necessity  with  the 
aged,  as  they  have  no  vitality  for  recuperation  after  severe 
exhaustion. 

514.  Intense  activity  too  long  continued  impairs  the  strongest 
brain.     The  nerve-cells  in  a  state  of  rest  are  neutral  in  their 
chemical  character,  but  after  severe  exercise  they  become 
acid.     When  in  this  condition  it  is  hazardous  to  continue  the 
exercise.     Sufficient  rest  should  be  taken  to  restore  them  to 
their  normal  condition.     Congestion,  or  an  undue  accumula- 
tion of  blood,  also  attends  excessive  functional  action.     The 
effect  of  severe  congestion  in  the  spinal  centres  is  to  produce 
convulsions ;    in   the  sensory  centres,  roaring   in   the   ears, 
flashes  of  light  before  the  eyes  and  various  hallucinations  ; 
in  the  ideational  centres,  stagnation  of  ideas,  swimming  in 
the  head,  and,  if  long  continued,  irregular  and  convulsive 
action  of  the  cells,  causing  delirium.     The  co-ordination  of 
function  is  destroyed,  the   will-power   abolished.      The  de- 
lirious ideas  are  the  expression  of  a  condition  of  things  in 
the  supreme  centres  analogous  to  that  which  in  the  spinal 
cord  utters  itself  in  convulsions. 

515.  The  required  rest  is  often  afforded  by  recreation  and 
amusement.     "Important  as  stated  employment  unquestion- 
ably is  to  the  mental   health,  amusement  or  recreation  is 
scarcely  less  so.    Few  persons,  whatever  their  mental  charac- 
ter or  temperament,  can  safely  dispense  with  these  altogether. 
Even  the  most  commanding  intellects  sometimes  seek  the 
recreation  which  their  exhausting  labors  make  necessary  in 
forms  of  amusement  which,  to  those  who  feel  the  necessity 
less,  seem  to  be  frivolous  and  puerile.   Endowed  as  we  are  with 
the  faculty  of  being  amused,  it  seems  to  be  a  reflection  on  the 
Author  of  our  being  to  regard  amusements  as  something  to 
be  carefully  shunned  rather  than  sought  and  enjoyed. 


250 

"To  those  whose  life  is  one  of  severe  toil  and  harassing 
care,  amusements  constitute  almost  the  only  practicable 
means  for  repairing  the  constant  waste  of  the  nervous 
energy.  Especially  is  this  want  felt  by  women  in  the 
humbler  walks  of  life,  whose  daily  round  of  care  and  toil 
not  only  draws  more  largely  than  that  of  the  stronger  sex  on 
the  physical  and  mental  energies,  but  is  lightened  by  none 
of  that  relief  which  is  afforded  by  a  greater  variety  of  duties 
and  more  frequent  periods  of  rest." 

Observation. — The  brain,  when  severely  taxed,-  is  often 
rested  by  some  kind  of  mental  exercise  which,  without  being 
fatiguing,  requires  just  enough  effort  to  impart  interest. 
Hence,  a  change  from  Mathematics  to  the  Languages,  or 
from  these  to  music,  poetry  or  painting,  will  give  the  needed 
relaxation. 

516.  To  maintain  the  highest  mental  vigor,  each  faculty 
of  the  mind  should  receive  its  due  share  of  cultivation.  Our 
various  faculties  were  not  bestowed  at  random,  to  be  used  or 
not  as  inclination  may  prompt,  but  each  has  its  appointed 
place  in  the  mental  economy.  Each  bears  some  relation  to 
every  other,  making  one  harmonious  whole.  All  cannot  and 
need  not  receive  the  same  amount  of  cultivation ;  but  let  any 
one  power  be  so  neglected  that  it  might  as  well  be  wanting, 
or  let  it  be  applied  to  some  other  than  its  destined  use,  and 
an  element  of  strength  is  lost,  the  mind  becomes  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  weakened  and  one-sided,  and  therefore  jars  in 
its  working.  One  must  form  habits  of  attention,  accustom 
the  mind  to  continuous  thought,  cultivate  the  reasoning 
powers  and  beget  a  taste  for  exact  knowledge,  if  he  would  be 
in  any  measure  equal  to  the  intellectual  effort  essential  to 
true  success  in  every  calling  of  life.  He  must,  however,  also 
call  into  action  the  creative  power  of  the  mind,  the  imagina- 
tion, to  give  vividness  to  his  conception,  to  add  force  to  his 
reasoning  and  to  light  up  the  whole  horizon  of  his  thought. 
Many  cry  out  against  this  faculty,  forgetting  that  it  is  God- 
given,  and  capable  of  a  culture  that  shall  make  it  of  inesti- 
mable value.  It  is  the  abuse  of  it,  not  the  use,  which  we  are 


NEKVOTJS  SYSTEM.  251 

to  guard  against.  Its  exercise  must  not  be  indulged  to  an 
extent  incompatible  with  the  claims  of  the  other  faculties. 
It  must  not  be  allowed  to  fashion  with  unbridled  power  our 
principles  and  motives,  our  aims  and  ends.  Give  it,  however, 
the  purest  material  to  work  with,  and,  within  proper  bounds, 
no  faculty  is  of  more  real  service  or  more  worthy  of  our  re- 
gard. Especially  is  it  of  value  in  presenting  to  the  mind  an 
ideal  of  excellence,  a  standard  of  attainment,  practicable  and 
desirable,  but  loftier  than  anything  we  have  yet  reached. 

517.  The  (Esthetic  faculty,  the'  love  of  the  beautiful,  should 
not  be  allowed  to  remain  inactive.     Its  importance  is  recog- 
nized only  as  we  understand  its  value.   An  object  is  beautiful 
to  us  just  in  proportion  to  our  power  to  discover  through  the 
material  form  the  thought  of  which  this  form  is  but  the  ex- 
pression ;  for  beauty  is  but  the  spirit  looking  out  through 
the  visible,  the  material.     Is  not  he,  then,  a  happier,  a  wiser 
and  a  better  man,  who  so  develops  this  faculty  that  he  may 
not  only  read  the  thought  and  sentiment  embodied  in  the 
works  of  art,  but  also  the  thoughts  of  the  Creator  in  their 
varied   forms  of  expression   through   all   the  kingdoms   of 
Nature  ? 

518.  Man  has  also  a  moral  faculty,  the  power  of  discrimi- 
nating between  right  and  wrong,  which  is  quickly  followed 
by  the  feeling  of  obligation  to  do  the  right  and  avoid  the 
wrong.     Upon  the  right  use  of  these  faculties  depend  the 
happiness  and  the  destiny  of  man.     The  power  of  an  ap- 
proving conscience  over  the  human  mind,  and  consequently 
over  the  health  of  the  Nervous  System,  cannot  be  over-esti- 
mated, while  on  the  other  hand,  the  torments  of  an  accusing 
conscience  not  only  "cut  the  sinews  of  the  soul's  inherent 
strength,"  but  snap  one  by  one  the  gossamer  filaments  of  the 
brittle  thread  of  life.  , 

We  have  given  only  a  glance  at  a  few  of  the  mental  facul- 
ties, but  should  we  take  them  one  by  one,  through  all  the 
departments  of  mind,  and  note  their  uses,  we  should  find 
none  which  could  be  unused  or  misused  without  detriment  to 
our  health,  happiness  or  usefulness. 


252  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

519.  Concerning  the  hygienic  influence  OP  A  HARMONIOUS 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  MENTAL  POWERS,  Dr.  Ray  says : 
"  A  partial  cultivation  of  the  mental  faculties  is  incompatible 
not  only  with  the  highest  order  of  thought,  but  with  the  highest 
degree  of  health  and  efficiency.     The  result  of  professional 
experience  fairly  warrants  the  statement  that  in  persons  of  a 
high  grade  of  intellectual  endowment  and  cultivation,  other 
things  being  equal,  the  force  of  moral  shocks  is  more  easily 
broken,  tedious  and  harassing  exercise  of  particular  powers 
more  safely  borne,  than  in  those  of  an  opposite  description,  and 
disease,  when  it  comes,  is  more  readily  controlled  and  cured. 
The  kind  of  management  which  consists  in  awakening  a  new 
order  of  emotion,  in  exciting  new  trains  of  thought,  in  turn- 
ing attention  to  some  new  matter  of  study  or  speculation, 
must  be  far  less  efficacious,  because  less  applicable,  in  one 
whose  mind  has  always  had  a  limited  range  than  in  one  of 
larger  resources  and  capacities.     In  endeavoring  to  restore 
the  disordered  mind  of  the  clodhopper  who  has  scarcely  an 
idea  beyond  that  of  his  manual  employment,  the  great  diffi- 
culty is  to  find  some  available  point  from  which  conservative 
influences  may  be  projected.     He  dislikes  reading,  he  never 
learned  amusements,  he  feels  no  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the 
world ;  and  unless  the  circumstances  allow  of  some  kind  of 
bodily  labor,  his  mind  must  remain  in  a  state  of  solitary 
isolation,  brooding  over  its  morbid  fancies,  and  utterly  in- 
competent to  initiate  any  recuperative  movement." 

$  48.  COMPARATIVE  NEUROLOGY. — The  Comparison  of  the  Nervous 
System  of  other  Mammals  with  that  of  Man — Of  Birds — Of  Reptiles — 
Of  Fishes.  The  Arrangement  of  the  Nervous  System  of  Mollusks — 
Of  Radiata. 

520.  We  have  seen  that  in  the  Motory  and  Nutritive  ap- 
paratuses, there  is  an  arrangement  and  condition  of  tissues, 
organs  and  functions,  in  all  classes  of  vertebrates,  homologous 
to  those  in  man.    Analogy  would  induce  the  supposition,  that 
in  the  arrangements  and  appointments  of  the  nervous  system 
a  similar  condition  would  be  found.     Here  are  found  gang- 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


253 


lia,  commissures,  and  nerves  afferent  and  efferent,  but  the 
highest  development,  the  convoluted  hemispherical  ganglion, 
seems  to  be  wanting  in  the  lower  orders  of  the  mammalia,  in 
birds,  reptiles  and  fishes;  with  this  general -exception,  all 
other  homologous  parts  are  more  or  less  developed. 

FIG.  164. 


FIG.  165 


FIG.  164  (Owen).  BASE  OF  BRAIN  OF  A  HORSE.—!,  Cerebrum.  2,  Optic  ganglion.  3, 
Cerebellum.  4,  Medulla  Oblongata  and  Spinal  Cord. 

FIG.  165.  BRAIN  OF  A  BIRD.— 1,  Cerebrum.  2,  Optic  ganglion.  3,  Cerebellum.  4, 
Medulla  Oblbngata. 

521.  In  the  Mammalia,  the  relative  size  of  the  cerebrum 
and  cerebellum,  except  in  the  lowest  order  (monotremata), 
as  the  ornithorynchus,  is  about  the  same  as  in  man,  but  in 
birds  the  cerebellum  is  proportionately  larger  than  the  cere- 
brum ;  the  sulci  of  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum  of  other 
mammals  and  birds  are  less  developed  than  in  man,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  the  relative  size  of  the  brain,  large  and  small, 
also  certain  ganglia  are  comparatively  larger.  In  the  horse, 

22 


254 


ANATOMY.  PHYSIOLOGY  AND-  HYGIENE. 


ox,  etc.,  the  olfactory,  optic  and  auditory  ganglia  are  large, 
and  the  senses  of  smell,  sight  and  hearing  are  acute.  This  is 
particularly  apparent  in  birds,  as  the  eagle,  vulture  and  buz- 
zard. In  these,  vision  is  not  only  far-reaching,  but  acute,  and 
the  same  is  true,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  smell  and  hearing. 
In  some  animals,  as  the  mole,  where  vision  is  feeble,  and  in 
others  where  smell  or  hearing  is  obtuse,  the  ganglionic  bulbs 
are  very  small  and  the  nerves  very  delicate. 

522.  In  Birds  the  hemispheres  are  not  united  by  a  corpus 
callosum,. as  in  mammals;  the  cerebellum  is  proportionately 
larger  than  the  medulla  oblongata;  and  the  comparative 
weight  of  the  brain  to  the  body  is  less  than  in  mammals. 


FIG.  166. 


FIG.  167. 


FIG.  166.  BRAIN  OF  AN  ALLIGATOR.—!,  Olfactory  ganglia.  2,  Cerebrum.  3,  Optic 
ganglia.  4,  Cerebellum.  5,  Medulla  Oblongata  and  Spinal  Cord. 

Fi3. 167.  BRAIN  OF  A  FISH.— 1.  Olfactory  ganglia.  2,  Cerebrum.  3,  Optic  ganglia.  4, 
Cerebellum.  5,  Medulla  Oblongata  and  Spinal  Cord. 

523.  The  brain  of  Reptiles  constitutes  but  a  very  small  part 
of  the  body.     It  is  smooth,  and  without  convolutions.     The 
hemispheres  are  hollow,  and  there  is  no  striated  body.     The 
cerebellum  sends  no  prolongations  across  the  medulla  ob- 
longata, so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  ring,  as  in  mammals. 

524.  The  relative  size  of  the  cerebrum  in  man,  compared 
with  that  of  the  mammals,  birds,  reptiles  and  fishes,  varies 
much.     In  some  few,  the  relative  weight  between  the  brain 


.    NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  255 

and  body  is  about  the  same  as  in  man,  while  in  others  it 
is  less — seemingly  an  homologous  appendage,  as  in  the  orni- 
thorynchus.  As  we  descend  in  the  scale  of  animal  life, 
the  cerebellum,  the  medulla  oblongata  and  the  ganglia  of 
some  of  the  special  senses,  as  of  smell  and  vision,  are  larger 
relatively  than  in  the  corresponding  parts  in  man,  since  these 
animals  depend  upon  them  for  their  subsistence  and  safety. 

525.  The  spinal  cord  of  all  mammals,  birds,  reptiles  and 
fishes  varies  most  in  length,  but  in  structure,  investment  and 
function  it  resembles  that  of  man.     The  number  of  pairs  of 
spinal  nerves  correspond  to  the  number  of  the  vertebrae,  but 
the  size  of  the  cord  is  relatively  larger  than  the  cerebrum, 
also  the  cerebellum  and  several  of  the  ganglia. 

526.  The  brain  of  the  Fish  is  small ;  it  does  not  fill  the 
whole  cranial  cavity,  there  being  found  within  it  a  spongy, 
fatty  mass.     The  investment  and  protection  of  some  of  the 
organs  of  special  sense  are  modified,  as  seen  in  the  eye  of  some 
fishes,  the  deep-sea  shark  for  instance,  where  the  sclerotic 
tunic  of  the  eye  is  bony,  in  order  to  protect  this  organ  from 
the  great  pressure  of  the  water.     Perhaps  the  most  wonderful 
arrangement  is  found  in  the  electric  fishes,  as  the  common 
Torpedo,    Malapterurus,    and    the    Electric    Eel    of   South 
America. 

527.  "  The  torpedo  is  a  cartilaginous  fish.          FIG.  ir>8. 
Its  body  is   smooth,  and   represents  a  disc 

nearly  circular,  the  anterior  edge  of  which  is 
formed  by  two  prolongations  of  the  muzzle, 
which  on  each  side  proceed  to  unite  with  the 
pectoral  fins,  and  leave  between  these  organs 
the  head  and  the  branchiae,  an  oval  space,  in 
which  is  lodged  the  electric  apparatus  of  the 
fish.  This  apparatus  is  composed  of  a  .num- 
ber of  vertical  membranous  tubes,  closely 
packed  like  honeycomb,  and  subdivided  by  TORPEDO. 

horizontal   partitions  filled  with   mucosites, 
and  animated  by  several  very  large  branches  of  the  pneumo- 
gastric  nerve,  which,  in  this  and  other  electric  fishes,  is  larger 


256          ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


FIG.  169. 


than  the  spinal  cord.  In  these  singular  organs  is  produced 
the  electricity  which  has  now  been  proved  to  resemble  in 
every  respect  common  electricity.  By  experiment  it  has 
been  ascertained  that  this  property  depends  on  the  posterior 
lobe  of  the  brain,  and  that  by  destroying  this  lobe,  or  cutting 
the  nerves  proceeding  from  it,  the  faculty  is  lost." 

528.  "The  Gym- 
notus,  or  Electric 
Eel,  possesses  the 
power  in  the  highest 
degree.  It  is  met 
with  in  vast  numbers 
in  the  rivulets  and 
stagnant  waters  of 
the  immense  plains 
of  South  America. 
The  electric  shocks, 
which  it  discharges 
at  will,  are  sufficient- 
ly strong  to  kill  men 
and  horses,  and  be- 
ing transmissible 
through  water,  the 
gymnotus  does  not 
require  to  touch  its 
prey.  At  first  the 
electric  discharges 
are  feeble,  but  when 
roused  they  become 
terrible ;  but  by  this* 
effort  it  becomes  ex- 
hausted, and  requires 
repose  before  it  can 
renew  the  attack :  this  is  the  moment  its  captors  avail  them- 
selves of  to  seize  it.  The  electric  organs  are  arranged  along 
the  back  and  tail." 

In  the  AKTICULATA,  the  body  is  different  in  its  general 


\ 


Fia.  169.  ELECTRIC  ORGANS  OF  TORPEDO. — 1,  Brain. 
2,  Spinal  cord.  3,  Eye  and  optic  nerve.  4,  Spinal 
nerve.  5,  Branchiae.  6,  Electrical  organ.  7,  Pneurno- 
gaetric  nerve. 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


257 


structure  and  the  nervous  system  is 
correspondingly  modified.  The  body 
is  composed  of  several  sections  artic- 
ulated with  each  other  in  a  lineal 
series.  The  ganglia  of  the  nerves 
of  special  sensation,  as  of  sight  and 
hearing,  of  motion,  of  respiration 
and  nutrition,  are  larger  than  those 
of  general  sensation. 

In  the  nervous  system  of  the  cen- 
tipede, whose  general  structure  is 
similar  to  that  of  other  articulates, 
the  ganglia  are  arranged  in  pairs 
of  nearly  equal  size,  except  the 
ganglion  that  answers  to  the  brain, 
which  is  larger,  along  the  ventral 
surface  of  the  alimentary  canal. 

FIG.  171. 


FIG.  170. 


FIG.  170.  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  OP 
AN  INSECT. — 1,  1,  Central  gang- 
lia. 2, 2,  2,  Nerves  that  connect 
the  ganglia. 

Each   pair  is  connected 


FIG.  171.  DIAGRAM  OF  A  CENTIPEDE. 

with  the  preceding,  with  the  integument  or  skin  and  with  the 
muscles  of  its  own  segment,  by  sensitive  and  motor  filaments 
of  nerves. 

529.  In  MollusJcs  are  found  the  ganglia  and  commissure 
arrangement,  with  nerves  sensitive  and  motor,  afferent  and 
efferent,  and  on  a  plan   corresponding  to  the   body.     The 
structure  of  the  organs  of  sense  is   less  complete   than   in 
vertebrate  animals.     Some  mollusks  are  gifted  only  with  the 
sense  of  touch  and  taste ;  a  great  number  have  eyes,  whose 
structure  varies ;  none  have  yet  been  found  possessing  a  spe- 
cial organ  for  smell. 

530.  In  the  RADIATA,  the  star-fish  manifests  one  of  the 

22* 


258 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


simplest  forms  of  the  nervous  system.  It  consists  of  a  central 
mass,  with  five  arms  radiating  from  it.  In  the  centre  is  the 
mouth,  and  beneath  it  the  stomach  or  gastric  cavity,  which 
sends  prolongations  to  each  limb.  The  nervous  system  con- 
sists of  five  similar  ganglia  situated  in  the  central  portion  at 
the  base  of  the  arms.  These  ganglia  are  connected  by  com- 
missures, and  each  sends  off  nerve-filaments  to  the  cor- 
responding limbs. 


FIG.  172. 


FIG.  173. 


FIG.  172.  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  TYPE  OF  A  MOLLUSK.— 1,  (Esophagal  ganglia.     2,  Cerebral 
ganglia.    3,  Pedal  or  locomotive  ganglia.    4,  Respiratory  ganglia. 
Fia.  173.  DIAGRAM  OF  A  RADIATA— THE  STAR-FISH. 

531.  We  have  seen  that  in  all  grades  of  the  animal  king- 
dom the  cell-structure  obtains,  but  in  the  lowest  forms  of 
animal  life  nerve  does  not  exist.  The  stimulus  which  the 
little  creature  receives  from  without  would  seem  to  produce 
some  change  in  the  molecular  relations  of  its  almost  homo- 
geneous substance,  and  these  insensible  movements  col- 
lectively to  amount  to  the  sensible  movement  which  it 
makes;  the  molecular  process  in  such  case  being  perhaps 
not  unlike  that  which  ensues  and  issues  in  the  coagulation 
of  the  blood  when  the  fibrin  is  brought  in  contact,  as  some 
think,  with  a  foreign  substance.  The  perception  of  the 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  259 

stimulus  by  the  creature  is  the  molecular  change  which  en- 
sues, the  imperceptible  motion  passing,  by  reason  of  the 
homogeneity  of  its  substance,  with  the  greatest  ease,  from 
element  to  element  of  the  same  kind,  as  it  were  by  an  infec- 
tion, or  as  happens  in  the  folding  of  the  leaves  of  the  mimosa, 
or  sensitive  plant ;  and  the  sum  of  the  molecular  motions,  as 
necessarily  determined  in  direction  by  the  form  of  the  ani- 
mal, results  in  the  visible  movement.  » 

"With  the  differentiation  of  tissue  and  increasing  com- 
plexity of  organization  which  are  met  with  as  we  ascend  in 
the  animal  kingdom,  the  nervous  tissue  appears,  but  at  first 
under  a  very  simple  form.  Its  simplest  type  may  be  repre- 
sented as  two  fibres  that  are  connected  by  a  nerve-cell ;  the 
fibres  are  apparently  simple 'conductors,  and  might  be  aptly 
compared  to  the  conducting  wires  of  a  telegraph,  while  the 
cell,  being  the  centre  in  which  nerve-force  is  generated,  may 
be  compared  to  the  telegraphic  apparatus;  in  it  the  effect 
which  the  stimulus  of  the  afferent  nerve  excites  is  transmitted 
along  the  efferent  nerve,  and  therein  is  displayed  the  simplest 
form  of  that  reflex  action  which  plays  so  large  a  part  in  ani- 
mal life." 

The  relations  of  the  animal  kingdom  afford  a  striking  evi- 
dence of  divine  unity,  bound  together  in  the  closest  harmony, 
and  the  work  of  Him  who  was  the  Beginning  and  will  bi 
the  End. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

THE   ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE. 

UNDER  this  head  are  classed  the  Tongue,  the  Nose,  the  Eye, 
the  Ear  and  the  Tactile  portions  of  the  Nervous  System. 

\  49.  THE  ANATOMY  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE. — The 
Organ  of  Taste— Of  Smell.  The  Coats  of  the  Eye.  The  Humors  of 
the  Eye.  The  Muscles  of  the  Eye.  The  Protecting  Organs.  Classi- 
fication of  the  Organs  of  Hearing.  The  External  Ear.  The  Labyrinth. 
The  Internal  Ear.  The  Organs  of  Touch.  Two  Layers  of  Skin.  The 
Epidermis.  The  Dermis.  The  Hairs.  The  Sebaceous  Glands.  The 
Perspiratory  Glands.  The  Nails. 

532.  The  organ  of  the  SENSE  OP  TASTE  is  the  mucous 
membrane  which  covers  the  Tongue,  especially  the  back  part 
of  this  organ,  and  the  palate.  Upon  the  upper  surface  of  the 
tongue  the  mucous  membrane  has  various  little  eminences, 
called  papillce,  resembling  the  villi  of  the  intestines.  The 

FIG.  174. 

5 

Fia.  174  (Leidy).  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  PAPILLA  OF  THE  TONGUE,  moderately  magnified. 
1,  Capitate  papillae.  2,  Conical  papillae.  3,  Epithelium.  4,  The  same  structure  form- 
ing bunches  of  hair-like  processes.  5,  Connective  tissue. 

principal  of  these  are  of  a  composite  character,  and  present 
three  varieties — the  Cireumvallate,  the  Fungifonn  and  the 
Conical.  The  CIRCUMVALLATE  papillae  are  shaped  like  the 
letter  V  with  the  point  turned  downward,  and  are  surrounded 
260 


THE  OKGAJSTS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE.  261 

by  an  annular  wall-like  elevation,  whence  their  name.  They 
are  about  a  dozen  in  number,  and  are  found  upon  the  pos- 
terior part  of  the  tongue.  The  FUNGIFORM  papillae  are  broad 
at  the  free  extremity  and  narrow  at  the  base,  having  some- 
thing of  the  mushroom  shape,  whence  their  name.  They  are 
more  numerous  than  the  circumvallate,  and  are  scattered 
over  the  surface  of  the  tongue,  but  are  especially  numerous 
at  and  near  the  tip.  The  CONICAL  papillae  are  smaller  and 
more  numerous  than  the  others,  and  are  found  in  the  inter- 
vals between  them,  arranged  in  rows  diverging  from  the 
median  line  of  the  tongue.  All  the  above-described  papillae 
and  the  spaces  between  are  covered  with  simple  papillae, 
conical  in  form.  From  those  surrounding  the  conical  papillae, 
the  squainose  epithelium  rises  in  hair-like  appendages,  which 
give  a  brush-like  arrangement,  admirably  adapted  to  the  im- 
bibition of  liquids  to  be  tasted.  These  hair-like  appendages 
give  the  velvety  character  to  the  surface  of  the  tongue,  and 
upon  them  the  furred  condition  of  this  organ  depends. 
Minute  blood-vessels  and  nerves  pass  up  into  these  papillae, 
nhus  giving  a  large  extent  of  sensitive  surface. 

FIG.  175. 


Fia.  175  (Daltori).    DIAGR^I  OP  THE  TONGUE,  with  its  sensitive  nerves  and  papillae. 
I,  Lingual  branch  of  fifth  pair.    2,  Glosso-pharyngeal  nerve. 

Nervous  filaments  are  received  from  the  fifth,  ninth  and 
twelfth  pairs  of  nerves.  The  branch  of  the  fifth,  called  the 
Gust'a-to-ryt  is  the  nerve  of  taste  and  ordinary  sensibility; 


262  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

the  twelfth,  called  the  Hypo-glossal,  of  voluntary  motion. 
By  means  of  the  ninth,  or  Glosso-pharyngeal,  the  tongue  is 
brought  into  association  with  the  fauces,  oesophagus  and 
larynx.  It  is  of  obvious  importance  that  these  parts  should 
act  in  concert;  and  this  is  effected  by  the  distribution  of 
this  nerve. 

FIG.  176. 


FIG.  176.  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  FIFTH  PAIR  OF  NERVES. — 1,  The  orbit  for  the  eye. 
2,  The  upper  jaw.  3,  The  tongue.  4,  The  lower  jaw.  5,  The  fifth  pair  of  nerves.  6,  The 
first  branch  of  this  nerve,  that  passes  to  the  eye.  9, 10,  11,  12, 13, 14,  Divisions  of  this 
branch.  7,  The  second  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves  is  distributed  to  the  teeth  of 
the  upper  jaw.  15, 16, 17, 18,  19,  20,  Divisions  of  this  branch.  8,  The  third  branch  of 
the  fifth  pair,  that  passes  to  the  tongue  and  teeth  of  the  lower  Jaw.  23,  The  division 
of  this  branch  that  passes  to  the  tongue,  called  the  gustatory.  24,  The  division  that 
is  distributed  to  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw. 


533.  The  organ  of  the  SENSE  OF  SMEI/L  is  a  part  of  the 
delicate  mucous  membrane  lining  the  nasal  passages.  These 
passages  extend  from  the  opening  of  the  nostrils  in  front,  to 
the  pharynx  behind ;  they  are  high,  vaulted  and  narrow, 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  a  partition  partly  bony, 
and  partly  cartilaginous.  This  double  cavity  is  separated 


THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE.  263 

from  the  mouth  by  a  bony  floor  (the  hard  palate),  which  is 
continued  backward  to  the  root  of  the  tongue  by  a  fleshy 
curtain,  called  the  soft  palate.  In  ordinary  positions  of  the 
mouth,  this  palate  and  the  root  of  the  tongue  effect  a  closure 
between  the  mouth  and  the  pharynx.  Each  of  the  outer 
walls  of  the  nasal  chamber  has  three  bony  processes  called  tur- 
binated  bones,  arranged  one  above  another,  like  shelves.  The 
front  of  the  chamber  is  bounded  by  a  thin  plate  of  bone,  filled 
with  perforations,  hence,  named  the  cribiform,  or  sieve-like 


FIG.  177. 


Fie.  177.  A  VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  MIDDLE  PART  OP  THE  NASAL  CAVITIES.— 7,  The 
middle  spongy  bones.  8,  The  superior  part  of  the  nasal  cavities.  10,  The  inferior 
spongy  bones.  11,  The  vomer.  12,  The  upper  jaw.  13,  The  middle  channel  of  the 
nose.  14,  The  lower  channel  of  the  nose.  17,  The  palatine  process  of  the  upper  jaw- 
bone. 18,  The  roof  of  the  mouth  covered  by  mucous  membrane.  19,  A  section  of  this 
membrane. 


plate.  Upon  it,  rest  the  olfactory  lobes  which  send  numerous 
filaments  through  the  perforations  to  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  two  upper  turbinated  bones,  affording  the  special  sense 
of  smell ;  the  membrane  of  the  lower  bone  receives  a  branch 
from  the  fifth  nerve,  which  is  endowed  with  common  sensi- 
bility only ;  the  odor  of  cologne,  for  example,  is  distinguished 
by  the  olfactory  nerve,  and  the  pungency,  by  the  branch  of 
the  fifth  nerve. 


264          ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY    AND   HYGIENE. 

FIG.  178. 


FIG.  178.  A  SIDE  VIEW  OF  THE  PASSAGE  OF  THE  NOSTRILS,  AND  THE  DISTRIBUTION  01 
THE  OLFACTORY  NERVE. — 4,  The  olfactory  nerve.  5,  The  fine  divisions  of  this  nerve  on 
the  membrane  of  the  nose.  6,  A  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves. 

534.  The  chief  organ  of  the  SENSE  OF  SIGHT  is  the  Eye. 
The  globe  of  the  eye,  or  eyeball,  is  composed  of  three  con- 
centric envelopes — viz.,  the  Selerot'ica,  with  the  Cornea  in 
front ;  the  Cho'roidea,  with  the  Iris  in  front ;  and  the  Ret'ina, 
which  is  internal.  These  make  up  most  of  the  solid  part  of  the 
eyeball,  which  is  a  hollow  sphere  filled  with  three  fluid  or  semi- 
fluid substances — the  Aqueous  Humor,  the  Crystalline  Lens  and 

the  Vitreous  Humor. 

FIG.  179. 


FIG.  179.  A  SECTION  OF  THE  GLOBE  OF  THE  EYE. — 1,  The  sclerotic  coat.  2,  The  cornea. 
(This  connects  with  the  sclerotic  coat  by  a  bevelled  edge.)  3.  The  choroid  coat.  6,  6, 
The  iris.  7,  The  pupil.  8,  The  retina.  10,  11, 11,  Chambers  of  the  eye  that  contain  the 
aqueous  humor.  12,  The  crystalline  lens.  13,  The  vitreous  humor.  15,  The  optic 
nerve.  16,  The  central  artery  of  the  eye. 


THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE.  265 

The  SCLEROTICA,  or  Sclerotic  coat,  invests  the  globe  of 
the  eye,  excepting  the  part  covered  with  the  cornea  in  front. 
It  is  composed  of  white  fibrous  tissue  arranged  in  many 
layers,  which  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  form  a 
tunic  of  great  strength.  It  is  white,  glassy  and  opaque,  and 
is  commonly  called  "  the  white  of  the  eye."  It  has  few 
blood-vessels  and  seems  destitute  of  nerves. 

The  CHOROLDEA,  or  Second  Coat  of  the  eye,  has  some 
fibrous  tissue  like  the  sclerotica,  but  is  chiefly  composed  of 
blood-vessels  and  pigment-cells.  These  cells  give  the  coat  an 
intense  black  color  on  the  inside,  but  externally  it  is  brown. 
It  lines  the  sclerotica,  and  is  connected  with  it  by  a  delicate 
areolar  tissue.  It  is  perforated  behind,  for  the  passage  of  the 
optic  nerve,  and  terminates  in  front  in  the  cil'iary  ligament 
(composed  chiefly  of  dense  areolar  tissue),  in  the  anterior 
part  of  which  the  iris  is  inserted.  This  muscle  also  lies  at  the 
juncture  of  the  sclerotica  and  cornea,  being  in  connection 
with  the  first  coat  and  cornea,  and  the  second  coat  and  iris. 

The  CILIARY  PROCESSES  consist  of  a  number  of  minute, 
triangular  folds,  formed  apparently  by  the  plaiting  of  the 
internal  layer  of  the  choroid  coat  toward  its  front  part. 
Their  bases  are  toward  the  pupil,  and  the  free  portion  rests 
against  the  circumference  of  the  crystalline  lens.  These 
processes  are  covered  with  pigment-cells. 

The  IRIS  occupies  the  opening  of  the  choroidea  in  front, 
forms  a  partition  between  the  anterior  and  the  posterior 
chambers  of  the  eye,  and  is  pierced  by  a  circular  opening, 
which  is  called  the  Pupil.  It  is  free,  except  at  its  peripheal 
attachments,  and  floats  freely  in  the  aqueous  humor.  The 
posterior  surface  of  the  iris,  or  uvea,  is  thickly  covered  with 
pigment ;  but  the  anterior  surface  gives  the  color  of  the  eye, 
so  remarkably  and  beautifully  varied  in  different  individuals, 
and  presenting  numerous  blended  tints  of  black,  brown,  blue 
and  gray.  The  iris  is  generally  regarded  as  a  modification 
of  muscular  tissue.  It  has  two  layers  of  fibres — one  layer  of 
radiating  fibres,  converging  from  the  circumference  to  the 
centre,  the  other  of  circular  fibres. 
23  M 


266  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

'The  RETINA  is  the  inner  coat  of  the  eye,  formed  by  the 
expansion  of  the  optic  nerve  upon  the  inner  side  of  the  cho- 
roid  coat,  but  not  extending  so  far  forward.  It  ends  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  ciliary  ligament,  in  a  jagged  edge, 
from  which  an  exceedingly  fine  membrane  extends  to  the 
ciliary  processes.  Its  inner  surface  is  bounded  by  an  exceed- 
ingly delicate  membrane,  called  the  "meinbraua  liniitans," 
which  separates  it  from  the  vitreous  humor. 


VIQ.  180.  A  VIEW  OP  THE  ANTERIOR  SEGMENT  OF  A  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  OF  THE  GLOBH 
t  THJB  EYE,  seen  from  within.    1,  The  divided  edge  of  the  three  coats— sclerotica,  cho- 
fuidea  and  retina.    2,  The  pupil.    3,  The  iris :  the  surface  presented  to  view  in  this  sec- 
tion being  the  uvea.    4,  The  ciliary  processes.    5,  The  scalloped  anterior  border  of  the 
retina. 

535.  Of  the  three  humors,  or  liquid  substances  of  the  eye, 
the  AQUEOUS,  or  watery,  is  situated  in  the  anterior  portion 
of  the  organ  behind  the  cornea.  It  is  an  albuminous  fluid, 
with  an  alkaline  reaction  and  liquid  like  water.  The  iris  is 
placed  vertically  in  the  fluid,  the  space  between  it  and  the 
cornea  being  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye,  and  that  be- 
tween the  iris  and  crystalline  lens  behind,  the  posterior  cham- 
ber. The  two  chambers  are  lined  by  a  membrane  secreting 
the  aqueous  humor. 

The  CRYSTALLINE  humor,  or  lens,  is  situated  immediately 
behind  the  pupil,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  ciliary  processes. 
It  is  invested  by  a  transparent,  elastic  membrane,  called  the 


THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE.  267 

capsule  of  the  lens.  The  humor  is  more  convex  on  the  pos- 
terior than  on  the  anterior  surface.  It  is  imbedded  in  the 
anterior  part  of  the  vitreous  humor,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  a  thin  membrane.  The  lens  consist  of  thin  layers,  like 
the  coats  of  an  onion.  The  external  layer  is  soft,  but  each 
successive  one  increases  in  firmness. 

Observation. — When  the  crystalline  lens  or  its  investing 
membrane  is  changed  in  structure,  preventing  the  rays  of  light 
from  passing  to  the  retina,  the  affection  is  called  a  cataract. 

FIG.  181. 


FIG.  181  (Leidy).  MUSCLES  OP  THE  EYE.— 1,  The  palpebral  elevator  muscle.  2,  The 
superior  oblique.  3,  The  pulley  through  which  the  tendon  of  insertion  plays.  4,  Supe- 
rior straight  muscle.  5,  Inferior  straight  muscle.  6,  External  straight  muscle.  7,  8, 
Its  two  points  of  origin.  9,  Interval  through  which  pass  the  oculo-motor  and  abducent 
nerves.  10,  Inferior  oblique  muscle.  11,  Optic  nerve.  12,  Cut  surface  of  the  malar  pro- 
cess of  the  superior  maxillary  bone.  13,  The  nasal  orifice.  A,  The  eyeball. 

536.  The  VITREOUS  HUMOR  forms  the  principal  bulk  of 
the  globe  of  the  eye.  It  is  an  albuminous  fluid  resembling 
the  aqueous  humor,  but  is  more  dense,  and  if  once  discharged 
by  disease  or  accident,  it  is  irrecoverably  lost;  while  the 
aqueous  humor  may  be  lost  and  afterward  restored.  This 
humor  is  enclosed  in  a  delicate  membrane,  called  the  hy'a- 
loid,  which  sends  processes  into  the  interior  of  the  globe  of 
the  eye,  forming  the  cells  in  which  the  humor  is  retained. 


268  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE. 

537.  The  MUSCLES  of  the  eye  are  six  in  number.     They 
are  attached  at  one  extremity  to  the  orbit  behind  the  eye ;  at 
the  other  extremity  they  are  inserted  by  broad,  thin  tendons 
to  the  sclerotic  coat,  near  the  junction  of  the  cornea.     The 
white,  pearly  appearance   of   the    eye  is   caused   by  these 
tendons. 

Observation. — If  the  external  muscle  is  too  short,  the  eye 
is  turned  out,  producing  the  "  wall  eye ;"  if  the  internal 
muscle  is  contracted,  the  eye  is  turned  inward  toward  the 
nose,  and  is  called  a  "  cross  eye." 

538.  The  PROTECTING  ORGANS  are  the  Orbits,  Eyebrows, 
Eyelids  and  Lach'rymal  Apparatus. 

The  ORBITS  are  deep,  bony  sockets  in  which  the  globes  of 
the  eye  are  placed.  The  bottom  of  each  orbit  has  a  large 
perforation,  giving  passage  to  the  optic  nerve.  These  cavities 
are  lined  with  a  thick  cushion  of  fat. 

The  EYEBROWS,  forming  the  upper  part  of  the  boundary 
of  the  orbits,  are  two  teguinentary  prominences  covered  with 
coarse  hair. 

The  EYELIDS  are  two  movable  curtains,  having  a  delicate 
skin  on  the  outside,  muscular  fibres  beneath,  and  a  narrow 
cartilage  on  their  edges,  which  tends  to  preserve  the  shape 
of  the  lid.  Internally,  they  are  lined  by  a  smooth  mucous 
membrane,  which  is  reflected  on  the  front  of  the  eye  upon 
the  sclerotica.  This  membrane  is  called  the  Conjuncti'va. 

Observation. — When  this  membrane  is  inflamed,  it  some- 
times deposits  a  whitish  material  called  lymph,  which  accounts 
for  the  films,  opacities  and  white  spots  seen  upon  the  eye  after 
the  inflammation  has  subsided. 

On  the  internal  surface  of  the  cartilage  there  are  found 
several  small  glands,  which  have  the  appearance  of  parallel 
strings  of  pearls.  They  open  by  minute  apertures  upon  the 
edges  of  the  lids. 

The  edges  of  the  eyelids  are  furnished  with  a  triple  row  of 
hairs,  called  eyelashes,  which  curve  upward  from  the  upper 
lid,  and  downward  from  the  lower. 

The  LACHRYMAL  APPARATUS  which  secretes  the  tears 


THE   ORGANS   OF  SPECIAL   SENSE. 


269 


consists  of  the  Lachrymal  Gland  with  its  ducts,  Lachrymal 
Canals  and  the  Nasal  Duct. 

The  LACHRYMAL  GLAND  is  situated  at  the  outer  and  upper 
angle  of  the  orbit,  occupying  a  depression  in  the  orbital  plate 
of  the  frontal  bone.  Ten  or  twelve  small  ducts  pass  from  this 
gland  and  open  upon  the  upper  eyelid,  where  they  pour  upon 
the  conjunctiva  the  lachrymal  fluid,  or  tears. 

.-• 
FIG.  182. 


FIG.  182  (Leidy).  THE  LEFT  EYELID  AND  LACHRYMAL  GLAND,  TURNED  FORWARD  AND 
INWARD,  TO  snow  THEIR  INNER  SURFACE. — 1,  Upper  and  lower  part  of  the  orbit.  2, 
Portion  of  the  palpebral  orbicular  muscle.  3,  Attachment  of  this  muscle  to  the  inner 
margin  of  the  orbit.  4,  Perforation  for  the  passage  of  the  external  nasal  nerve.  5,  Offset 
described  as  the  tensor  muscle  of  the  eyelids.  6,  Palpebral  glands.  7,  Posterior,  and  8, 
anterior  portions  of  the  lachrymal  glands.  9,  10,  Ducts.  11,  Orifices  opening  on  the 
inner  surface  of  the  upper  eyelid.  12, 13,  The  lachrymal  orifices  at  the  summits  of  the 
lachrymal  papillae. 


The  LACHRYMAL  CANALS  commence  at  the  free  borders 
of  each  eyelid,  near  the  internal  angle  of  the  eye,  by  two 
minute  orifices,  called  "  punc'ta  lach'rymalia"  (tear  points). 
Each  of  these  ducts  communicates  with  the  sac  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  nasal  duct. 

The  NASAL  DUCT  is  a  short  canal  about  three  quarters 
of  an  inch  in  length,  directed  downward  and  backward  to 

23* 


270  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

the  inferior  channel  of  the  nose,  where  it  terminates  by  an 
expanded  orifice.  The  tears,  secreted  by  the  lachrymal 
gland,  are  conveyed  to  the  eye  by  the  small  ducts  before 
described.  They  are  then  taken  up  by  the  puncta  lachry- 
mal ia  and  carried  by  the  lachrymal  canals  into  the  lachrymal 
sac,  from  which  they  are  passed  to  the  nasal  cavities  by  the 

nasal  duct. 

FIG.  183. 


FIG.  183.  VIEW  OP  LACHRYMAL  GLAND  AND  NASAL  DUCT. — 1,  The  lachrymal  gland.  2, 
Ducts  leading  from  the  lachrymal  gland  to  the  upper  eyelid.  3,  3,  The  puncta  lachry- 
nialia.  4,  The  nasal  sac.  5,  The  termination  of  the  nasal  duct. 

539.  The  SENSE  OF  HEARING  does  not  strictly  belong  to 
one  organ,  but  to  several,  which  are  grouped  into  three  divi- 
sions— the  External  Ear,  the  Tym'panum*  and  the  Labyrinth 
or  Internal  Ear. 

540.  The  LABYRINTH  is  so  called  from  its   remarkable 
and  varied  configuration.     It  is  divided  into  three  portions — 
the  Vestibule,  the  Semicircular  Canals  and  the  Coch'lea.  f 

541.  The  VESTIBULE  is  a  small  and  somewhat  triangular 
cavity  about  the  size  of  a  grain  of  wheat.    It  is  placed  almost 
vertically  in  the  centre  of  the  labyrinth,  and  is  a  kind  of 
entrance-chamber  or  ante-room   to  the  semicircular   canals 
behind  and  the  cochlea  in  front. 

*  Gr.,  ttimpanon,  a  drum.  f  Gr.,  kochlos,  to  twist. 


THE   ORGANS   OF   SPECIAL   SENSE.  27  J 

FIG.  184. 


FIG.  184.  A  VIEW  OF  THE  LABYRINTH  LAID  OPEN.—!,  1,  Cochlea.  2,  3,  Two  canals, 
that  wind  two  and  a  half  turns  around  a  hollow  axis  (5).  7,  Central  portion  of  the  laby- 
rinth (vestibule).  8,  Fenestra  rotunda.  9,  Fenestra  ovalis.  11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 
The  semicircular  canals.  Highly  magnified.  • 

542.  The  SEMICIRCULAR  CANALS  are  three  curved  pas- 
sages, describing  more  than  half  a  circle,  and  are  about  the 
twentieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     Two  of  them  open  into 
the  vestibule  at  both  extremities,  and  the  third  at  one  ex- 
tremity.    Both  the  vestibule  and  the  canals  contain  a  trans- 
parent fluid  like  lymph,  and  in  this  fluid,  without  touching 
the  walls  of  the  cavity,  floats  a  membranous  labyrinth,  cor- 
responding in   form   to   the   osseous   one,   but   considerably 
smaller.     It  is  a  sheath  or  bag  enlarged  at  the  vestibule,  and 
sending  out  prolongations  into  the  semicircular  canals  on  the 
the  one  side  and  the  cochlea  on  the  other.     It  is  filled  with 
a  lymph-like  fluid  of  greater  consistency  than  that  in  which 
it  floats.     The  auditory  nerve  is  distributed  in  the  walls  of 
this  membranous  labyrinth,  and  nervous  filaments  connect  it 
with  its  osseous  counterpart. 

543.  In  front  of  the  vestibule  is  the  COCHLEA,  so  called 
from  its  resemblance  to  a  snail-shell.     It  consist?  of  a  bony 


272 

canal  which  winds  around  a  hollow  axis  nearly  three  times, 
gradually  decreasing  in  diameter,  and  thus  forming  a  spiral 
cone.  The  interior  of  the  canal  is  divided  into  two  passages 
by  a  membranous  partition,  upon  which  the  remaining  parts 
of  the  auditory  nerve  ramify.  The  passages  are  filled  with 
lymph,  and  communicate  with  each  other  at  the  apex  of  the 
cone  and  at  the  apex  of  the  base ;  one  opens  into  the  vesti- 
bule, the  other  into  the  Tympanum  (the  Fenes'tra*  Rotunda}. 

FIG.  185. 


FIG.  185.  A  VIEW  OP  THE  AUDITORY  NERVE. — 1,  Spinal  cord.  2,  Medulla  oblongata. 
3,  Lower  part  of  the  brain.  4,  Auditory  nerve.  5,  A  branch  to  the  semicircular  canals. 
6,  A  branch  to  the  cochlea. 

In  the  outer  part  of  the  bony  wall  of  the  vestibule  is  the 
Fenestra  Ovalis,  an  oval-shaped  perforation  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  in  length  and  one-sixteenth  in  width.  This  is 
closed  by  a  thin  fibrous  membrane,  which  prevents  the  escape 
of  the  fluid  from  the  vestibule,  and  through  it  the  sonorous 
vibrations  pass  to  the  vestibule. 

544.  The  TYMPANUM,  or  middle  ear,  is  an  irregular  bony 
cavity  larger  than  the  vestibule  and  just  outside  of  it.  It  is 
separated  from  the  external  ear  by  a  thin,  semi-transparent 
membrane  of  an  oval  shape.  This  is  very  closely  fitted  into 
a  groove,  between  the  tympanum  and  the  auditory  canal. 
The  tympanum  is  often  called  the  Drum  of  the  ear,  and  very 
appropriately,  for  the  membrane  of  the  tympanum  is  in  con- 
tact with  the  atmosphere  whose  sonorous  vibrations  beat  upon 

*  Lat.,  a  window. 


THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL,  SENSE.  273 

it  much  like  drumsticks  upon  the  head  of  a  drum.  There 
are  several  openings  into  the  tympanum,  of  which  the  largest 
is  called  the  Eustachian  tube,  from  the  name  of  the  first 
anatomist  who  described  it.  It  is  a  trumpet-shaped  canal 
somewhat  over  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  extending  from  the 
fore  part  of  the  tympanum  obliquely  inward,  forward  and 
downward  to  the  pharynx.  The  tube  is  lined  with  a  ciliated 
epithelium  continuous  with  that  of  the  pharynx  and  tympa- 
num. In  the  tympanic  cavity  are  three  bones,  or  ossicles, 
the  smallest  in  the  body,  weighing-  only  a  few  grains.  From 
their  resemblance  to  the  articles,  they  have  been  named  the 
Mallet,  Anvil  (attached  to  this  bone  is  a  little  tubercle,  or 
orbicular  bone,  which  is  sometimes  regarded  as  a  separate 
ossicle)  and  Stirrup.  The  Mallet  and  Anvil  articulate  by  a 
hinge-joint;  the  Anvil  and  Stirrup  by  a  ball-and-socket 
joint. 

FIG.  186. 


FIG.  186.  A  VIEW  OP  ALL  THE  PARTS  OF  THE  EAR.—l,  The  canal  that  leads  to  the  in- 
ternal ear.  2,  The  membrana  tympani.  3,  4,  5,  The  bones  of  the  ear.  7,  The  central 
part  of  the  labyrinth  (vestibule).  8,  9, 10,  The  semicircular  canals.  11, 12,  The  chan- 
nels of  the  cochlea.  13,  The  auditory  nerve.  14,  The  opening  from  the  middle  ear,  or 
tympanum,  to  the  throat  (Eustachian  tube). 

M* 


274  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

545.  The  EXTERNAL  EAR  lies  outside  the  membrane  of 
the  tympanum.     It  is  composed  of  the  auditory  canal  and 
the  part  which  projects  from  the  head.     The  canal,  or  Ex- 
ternal Mea'tus*  Audito'rius,  is  partly  bony  and  partly  car- 
tilaginous, about  one  inch  in  length,  and  narrower  in   the 
middle   than    at    the    extremities.      Short,   firm    hairs    are 
stretched  across  the  tube,  preventing  the  ingress  of  foreign 
bodies.     Beneath  the  thin  cuticle  are  small  follicles  which 
secrete  the  Ceru'men,  or  wax.     The  part  of  the  external  ear 
outside  the  cavity  has  numerous  prominences  and  ridges. 

(For  Physiology  of  Hearing,  see  565.) 

546.  The  skin  is  the  principal  part  of  the  body  concerned 
in  the  SENSE  OF  TOUCH,  but  the  tongue  and  lips  also  possess 
this  sense.     The  skin  consists  of  two  layers.     The  external, 
or  superficial  layer,  destitute  of  blood-vessels  and  nerves,  is 
called  the  Ep-irderm'is^  (which  consists  of  two  layers,  different 
in  many  respects,  one  being  named  the  Cuticle,  the  other  the 
Soft  Epidermis) ;  and  an  internal,  or  deeper  layer,  abundantly 
supplied  with  nerves  and  highly  vascular,  called  the  Dennis, 
Cutis  Vera  (or  true  skin).     This  layer  presents  two  very  dif- 
ferent surfaces,  of  which  the  external  is  called  the  Papillary 
layer,  the  internal  the  Co'ri-um.  J 

547.  The  skin  covers  the  whole  exterior  of  the  body,  and 
at  the  margins  of  the  apertures  is  directly  continuous  with 
the  mucous  membrane,  which  last  is  an  integument  of  greater 
delicacy,  but  has  substantially  the  same  composition — viz., 
a  deep  fibrous,  sanguine,  sensitive  layer,  a  basement  mem- 
brane, and  an  epithelium,  or  superficial,  insensible  and  blood- 
less layer.     Thus  the  whole  body,  externally  and  internally, 
has  a  complete  epithelial  investment. 

548.  The  EPIDERMIS  holds  the  same  relation  to  the  dermis 
that  the  epithelium  does  to  the  deeper  layer  of  the  mucous 
membrane.     It  varies  in  thickness,  from  the  thin,  delicate 
membrane  upon  the  internal  flexions  of  the  joints,  to  the 

*  Lat.,  meo,  to  pass,  a  passage.       f  Gr.,  epi,  upon,  and  derma,  skin. 
J  Gr.,  chorion,  skin. 


THE   ORGANS   OF   SPECIAL   SENSE. 


275 


thickened  covering  of  the  soles  of  the  feet.  This  variation 
is  perceptible  in  infants,  before  exercise  can  have  had  any 
influence. 

FIG.  187. 


FIG.  187.  A  VERTICAL  SECTION  OP  THE  SKIN.— 1,  1,  The  lines,  or  ridges  of  the  cuticle, 
cut  perpendicularly.  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  The  furrows  or  wrinkles  of  the  same.  3,  The  epider- 
mis. 4,  4,  4,  Colored  layer.  5,  5,  Dermis,  or  cutis  vera.  6,  6,  6, 6,  6,  Papillae.  7,  7,  Small 
furrows  between  the  papillae.  8,  8,  8,  8,  Deeper  furrows  between  each  couple  of  the 
papillae.  9,  9,  Cells  filled  with  fat.  10, 10, 10,  Adipose  layer,  with  numerous  fat  vesicles. 
11, 11, 11,  Cellular  fibres  of  the  adipose  tissue.  12,  Two  hairs.  13,  A  perspiratory  gland, 
with  its  spiral  duct.  14,  Another  perspiratory  gland,  with  a  duct  less  spiral.  15, 15,  Oil- 
glands  with  ducts  opening  into  the  sheath  of  the  hair  (12).  A  diagram. 


During  life  the  EPI- 
DERMIS is  constantly 
undergoing  loss,  throw- 
ing off  the  superficial 
epidermoid  scales, 
which  are  constantly 
renewed  by  fresh  cells, 
originating  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  true  skin. 
These  gradually 
undergo  transformation 
from  the  spherical  to 


FIG.  188. 


FIG.  188  (Leidy).  FRAGMENT  OP  DANDRUFF  FROM 
THE  HEVP. — 1,  Portion  of  dandruff,  consisting  of 
non-nucleated  cells.  2,  Several  fragments,consisting 
of  nucleated  cells.  3,  Isolated  cells,  some  with  and 
some  without  nuclei.  4,  A  cell  more  highly  mag- 
nified, exhibiting  granular  contents  and  a  nucleus. 


276 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


FIG.  189. 


the  flattened  shape,  as  they  approach   the  surface  of  the 
cuticle. 

The  soft  epidermic  layer  is  the  seat  of  the  color  of  the  skin. 
The  difference  between  the  blonde  and  brunette,  the  European 
and  the  African,  lies  only  in  the  deep,  newly-formed  layers 
of  the  epidermis.  In  the  whitest  skin,  the  cells  of  the  epi- 
dermis always  contain  a  slight  amount  of  the  pigmentary 
tint,  which  disappears  from  the  cells  as  this  soft  layer  is 
transformed  into  the  cuticle. 

549.  The  CUTICLE  is  a  translucent,  horn-like  membrane. 
Its  deeper  surface  is  continuous  with  the  soft  epidermic  layer 

from  which  it  is  constantly  re- 
newed. Its  free  surface  is  inces- 
santly wearing  away,  or  shed  in 
small  flakes,  constituting  scurf  or 
dandruff. 

550.  The  DERMIS,  or  TRUE 
SKIN,  is  made  up  of  interlacing 
bundles  of  white  areolar  tissue, 
mixed  with  yellow  elastic  fibres. 
These  are  so  interwoven  as  to 
constitute  a  firm,  strong  and 
flexible  web.  In  the  superficial 
part,  the  web  is  so  close  as  to  re- 
semble felt  cloth.  In  the  deepest 
layers  the  network  is  loose,  and  encloses  the  hair-follicles 
with  their  sebaceous  glands,  and  small  masses  of  fat. 

In  most  situations,  plain  muscular  fibres  are  found  mixed 
with  the  fibrous  and  elastic  tissues ;  these  are  always  present 
where  hairs  exist,  to  which  parts  they  are  often  attached ; 
but  on  the  palms  and  soles,  where  these  are  absent,  no  mus- 
cular fibres  are  ever  seen. 

551.  The  outer  surface  of  the  dermis,  as  seen  when  de- 
nuded, is  provided  with  little  conical-shaped  projections, 
called  Papillce  (6,  fig.  187).  These  are  prolongations  of 
the  upper  compact  tissue  of  the  corium  into  the  newly- 
formed  layer  of  the  epidermis.  The  papillae  are  very 


Fia.  189  (Leidy.)  SCURF  FROM  THE 
LEG. — 1,  A  fragment  of  scurf,  consist- 
ing of  dried,  flattened,  non-nucleated 
cells  or  scales.  2,  A  few  cells  with  a 
nucleus.  3.  A  cell  more  highly  mag- 
nified, to  exhibit  its  polyhedral  form. 


THE   ORGANS   OF   SPECIAL   SENSE. 


277 


FIG.  190. 


--9 


numerous  on  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  on  the  free  border 
of  the  lips. 

552.  The  cutis  vera  is  abundantly  supplied  with  blood-ves- 
sels, lymphatics  and  nerves.  Its  general  surface  is  covered  with 
a  close  capillary  network,  from 
which  looped  vessels  project 
and  enter  the  papillae.  The 
lymphatics  also  form  a  close 
network  on  the  surface.  The 
nerves  pass  upward  from  the 
subcutaneous  areolar  tissue, 
and  form,  as  they  approach 
the  surface,  minute  plexuses, 
from  which  the  nerve-fibres  are 
given  off.  Some  of  these  fibres 
are  lost  in  the  compact  tissue 
of  the  dermis ;  others  end,  per- 
haps, in  loops ;  and  many  pass 
into  certain  of  the  papillae,  for 
it  is  said  that  some  of  these  do 
not  receive  nerve-fibres.  In  the 
papillae  these  fibres  end  in  loops, 
or,  as  in  the  fingers,  the  sole  of 
the  foot,  and  perhaps  on  the  red 
margin  of  the  lips  and  the  point 
of  the  tongue,  they  appear  to 
terminate  in  small  oval,  con- 
densed bodies,  called  tactile  cor- 
puscles, situated  in  the  centre 

Of  the  papillae.      In  any  Case,  it      nective  and  adipose  tissue.     6,  Tactile 

is  supposed  that  the  nerve-fibre 
turns  back  to  rejoin  some  nerve- 
cell  in  the  nervous  centres. 

The  network  of  nerves  imbedded  in  the  upper  porous 
layer  of  the  true  skin  is  derived  from  nerves  which  take 
their  winding  course  through  the  fat,  distended  openings  of 
the  corium. 

24 


FIG.  190  (Leidy).   VERTICAL  SECTION  OF 

THE     SKIN     OF     THE     FOREFINGER     ACROSS 

Two  OF  THE  RIDGES  OF  THE  SURFACE  ; 
highly  magnified.  1,  Dermis,  composed 
of  an  intertexture  of  bundles  of  fibrous 
tissue.  2,  Epidermis.  3,  Its  cuticle.  4, 
Its  soft  layer.  5,  Subcutaneous  con- 


papillae.  7,  Sweat  glands.  8,  Duct.  9, 
Spiral  passage  from  the  latter  through 
the  epidermis.  10,  Termination  of  the 
passage  on  the  summit  of  ridge. 


278 


ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 


553.  The  minute  depressions  from  which  the  hairs  of  the 
skin  emerge  are  called  the  Hair-follicles,  or  sacs.  They  are 
buried  in  the  corium,  or  true  skin.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
follicle  is  a  more  or  less  elevated  portion  of  the  dermis,  often 
forming  a  distinct  papilla,  which  is  destitute  of  cuticle.  The 

root  of  the  hair  is  composed  of 
soft,  pale  and  somewhat  com- 
pressed nucleated  cells ;  it  is 
adherent  to  the  lining  of  the  fol- 
licle, or  root-sheath.  When  a 
hair  is  plucked  out,  the  sheath 
adheres  to  it,  but  the  vascular 
papilla  at  the  bottom  of  the  fol- 
licle remains,  and  a  new  hair  is 
generated  upon  it.  If  the  papilla 
is  destroyed,  no  new  hair  can  be 
formed.  All  these  papillse,  ex- 
cept those  of  the  finest  hairs, 
probably  receive  nervous  fibrils. 
The  part  of  the  hair  projecting 
above  the  surface  is  called  the 
Shaft.  The  shaft  is  usually  cylin- 
drical, but  sometimes  flattened. 
It  consists  of  an  outer  part,  called 
the  Cortex,  composed  of  a  single 
layer  of  imbricated  scales  whose 
edges  are  directed  toward  the 
point  of  the  hair.  Beneath  the 
cortex  is  the  so-called  fibrous  part 
of  the  hair,  which  constitutes  its 
bulk,  and  consists  of  fusiform 
cells  clustered  into  flattened 
fibres,  running  longitudinally  and 
intermixed  with  pigment  granules.  Lastly,  the  very  deepest 
cells,  occupying  the  centre  of  the  shaft  and  constituting  the 
pith,  are  not  elongated,  but  polyhedral  and  loosely  connected 
together,  and  containing  chiefly  pigment  or  fat  granules. 


FIG.  191  (L'idy).  DIAGRAM  OF  STRUC- 
TURE OP  THE  ROOT  OP  A  HAIR  WITHIN 
ITS  FOLLICLK.— 1,  Hair  papilla.  2, 
Capillary  vessel.  3,  Nerve-fibres.  4, 
Fibrous  wall  of  the  hair-follicle.  5, 
Basement  membrane.  6,  Soft  epider- 
mic lining  of  the  follicle.  7,  Its  elastic 
cuticular  layer.  8,  Cuticle  of  the  hair. 
9,  Cortical  substance.  10,  Medullary 
substance.  11,  Bulb  of  the  hair,  com- 
posed of  soft  polyhedral  cells.  12, 
Transition  of  the  latter  into  the  corti- 
cal eubstance,  medullary  substance 
and  cuticle  of  the  hair. 


THE   ORGANS   OF  SPECIAL   SENSE. 


279 


FIG.  192. 


of  the  unstriated  muscular  fibres  from  the  true  skin 
pass  obliquely  down  from  the  surface  of  the  dermis  to  the 
under  side  of  the  slanting  hair-fol- 
licles. The  contraction  of  these 
fibres  erects  the  hairs,  and  by  draw- 
ing the  follicles  to  the  surface  and 
pulling  in  a  little  point  of  the  skin, 
produces  that  roughness  of  the  in- 
tegument called  "goose-skin,"  or 
Cutis  Anserina.  The  standing  on 
end  of  the  hair  of  the  head,  as  the 
result  of  extreme  fright,  may  be 
partly  due  to  the  contraction  of 
•such  fibres,  as  well  as  to  the  action 
of  the  occipito-frontalis  muscle. 

554.  Each  hair-follicle  receives, 
in  nearly  all  cases,  the  ducts  of  two 
Sebaceous,  or  Oil- Glands,  which  are 
situated  in  the  dermis.     They  are 
found  only  where  hairs  exist.   Each 
gland  is  a  flask-shaped  body,  com- 
posed of  from  five  to  twenty  little 
sacs,  clustered  around  and  leading 
into  a  common  duct.    These  glands 
are  lined  by  a  fine  epithelium,  and 
the  unctuous  secretion  first  anoints 
the  hair-bulb,  and  then  oozes  out 
upon  the  neighboring  surface  of  the 
cuticle.     The  sebaceous  glands  are 
of  considerable  size. 

555.  Immediately  beneath  the  skin,  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  body,  there  are  a  multitude  of  little  glandular  bodies, 
called  Perspiratory,  or  Sweat  Glands.    Each  gland  consists  of 
a  minute,  cylindrical  spiral  duct,  which  passes  inward  through 
the  epidermis,  and  terminates  in  a  globular  coil,  in  the  deeper 
meshes  of  the  cutis  vera.     The  opening  of  the  duct  upon  the 
cuticle  is  called   the  "pore."     This  aperture  is  oblique  in 


FIG.  192  (Leidy).  PORTION  OP  A 
HAIR  FROM  THE  OUTER  PART  OF 
THE  THIGH,  magnified.  1,  Shaft 
of  the  hair  covered  with  trans- 
verse markings  indicating  the 
projecting  edges  of  the  cuticnlar 
scales.  2,  Cortical  substance  at 
the  end  of  the  hair,  broken  up  into 
coarse  fibres,  as  the  result  of  fric- 
tion of  the  clothing. 


280  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

direction,  and  possesses  all  the  advantage  of  a  valvular  open- 
ing, preventing  the  ingress  of  foreign  injurious  substances  to 


FIG.  193. 


Fio.  193.  OO-GLANDS  AND  DUCTS,  magnified  thirty-eight  diameters.  1,  A,  Oil-glaud 
from  the  scalp  ;  B,  Its  duct.  2,  A,  Two  glands  from  the  skin  of  the  nose  ;  B,  Common 
duct.  3,  A,  Oil-gland  from  the  nose ;  B,  The  duct  filled  with  the  peculiar  animalcules 
of  the  oily  substances ;  the  heads  are  directed  inward.  4,  A,  Cluster  of  oil-glands  around 
the  shaft  of  the  hair  (C) ;  B,  Ducts. 

the  interior  of  the  duct  or  gland.  These  glands,  coming  in 
contact  with  the  capillary  blood-vessels,  receive  a  watery 
fluid  (the  perspiration)  from  the  blood,  having  the  following 
composition : 

Water 995.00 

Animal  matters,  with  lime .10 

Chlorides  of  sodium  and  potassium  and  spirit  extract..         2.40 
Acetic  acid,  acetates,  lactates  and  alcoholic  extracts...         1.45 

Sulphates  and  substances  soluble  in  water 1.05 

1000.00 

The  formation  of  this  watery  fluid  is  constant,  but  usu- 
ally evaporation  takes  place  as  fast  as  it  reaches  the  sur- 
face. This  is  called  the  "insensible  transpiration"  of  the 
skin. 

556.  The  NAILS  are  horny  appendages  of  the  skin,  and 
correspond  with  the  hoofs  and  claws  of  animals.  They  are 


THE   ORGANS  OF   SPECIAL   SENSE.  281 

flexible,  translucent  plates  continuous  with  the  epidermis, 
and  rest  on  the  depressed  surface  of  the  cutis  vera,  called  the 
matrix,  or  bed.     By  maceration 
or  severe  scalding,  the  nail  be- 
comes  detached    with    the   epi- 
dermis, even  in  life. 

The  horny  layer  of  the  nail 
answers  to  the  cuticle  ;  it  is  com- 
posed of  numerous  layers  of  flat-  Flo  191  A  ~TION  OF  THE  END  OF 

tened,  nucleated   Cells,  Or  Scales,      THE  FINGER  AND  NAIL.—  4,  Section  of 

while  the  soft  layer  corresponds    *he  !***  *one  °f  .the  tfi"gen  *•*£• 

•  forming  the  cushion  at  the  end  of  the 

With    the    deep    parts  Of  the    epi-      finger.    2,  The  nail.    1,  1,  The  cuticle 


dermis,  and  is  made  up  of  deli-    ™t™™d  ™der  and  around  the  root 

'  of  the  nail,  at  3,  3,  3. 

cate  polyhedral,  nucleated  cells. 

The  nails  increase  in  length  by  the  constant  addition  of  cells 
at  the  root  ;  they  grow  in  thickness  by  the  formation  of  cells 
on  the  under  surface.     This  double  development  explains 
why  nails  are  thickest  at  their  most  convex  portion. 
For  Physiology  of  the  Skin,  see  570. 

\  5O.  PHYSIOLOGY  OP  THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE.  —  Primary 
Use  of  the  Sense  of  Taste—  Of  Smell.  Some  of  the  Laws  of  Light.  The 
Adaptation  of  the  Eye  to  the  Laws  of  Light.  Cause  of  Short-Sighted- 
ness  —  Of  Long-Sightedness  —  Defect  remedied.  Functions  of  the  Different 
Coats  of  the  Eye.  The  Accessory  Parts  of  the  Eye.  Hearing.  Func- 
tion of  the.  External  Ear  —  Auditory  Canal  —  Eustachian  Tube  —  Cochlea 
and  Semicircular  Canals.  Sounds  reach  the  Fluid  of  the  Labyrinth  by 
Two  Paths.  Special  Organ  of  the  Sense  of  Touch.  Functions  of  the 
Skin.  Use  of  the  Epidermis  —  Of  the  Cuticle  —  Of  Cutaneous  Papilla. 
Vessels  of  the  Coi'ium.  Function  of  the  Oil-  Glands.  Uses  of  Per- 
spiration. 

557.  The  primary  use  of  the  SENSE  OF  TASTE  is  to  guide 
animals  in  the  selection  of  food,  that  noxious  articles  may 
not  be  introduced  into  the  stomach.  In  man,  this  sense  has 
been  so  abused  and  perverted  by  the  introduction  of  stimu- 
lants and  condiments,  and  the  endless  admixture  of  different 
articles  of  food,  that  the  natural  action  seems  to  have  been 
almost  entirely  superseded  by  acquired  taste.  This  sense  be- 

24* 


282  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

comes  very  acute  by  cultivation,  as  may  be  seen  in  those 
persons  whose  business  it  is  to  judge  of  the  quality  of  certain 
articles  by  the  taste ;  as  tasters  of  wine,  tea,  etc.  The  acute- 
ness  of  taste,  however,  varies  in  different  persons  according 
to  the  sapid  bodies  themselves. 

558.  In  man,  the  SENSE  OF  SMELL  is  one  of  inferior  im- 
portance.    It  furnishes  the  mind  with  but  few  ideas,  and 
these  are  mostly  subservient  to  his  physical  well-being.    This 
sense  leads  us  to  avoid  disagreeable  odors  or  putrescent  food, 
and  when  acute,  to  escape  the  injurious  effects  of  many  vapors 
which  endanger  health. 

559.  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EYE  is  beautifully  adapted 
to  the  laws  of  light,  a  few  of  which  it  is  necessary  for  us  to 
notice. 

When  light  passes  through  a  medium  of  unvarying  density, 
the  rays  are  in  straight  lines,  but  when  it  passes  from  a  me- 
dium of  one  density  into  another  of  different  density,  they 
are  refracted,  or  bent  from  a  straight  course,  unless  striking 
the  medium  perpendicularly,  when  they  are  unchanged. 

When  light  passes  from  one  medium  to  another  having  a 
convex  or  concave  surface,  instead  of  a  flat  surface,  a  great 
degree  of  refraction  is  produced,  and  the  greater  the  curva- 
ture, the  greater  will  be  the  amount  of  refraction.  Fit  a  con- 
vex lens  in  an  opening  of  the  shutter  of  a  darkened  room ; 
the  rays  of  light  will  cross  each  other  in  the  lens,  and  an  in- 
verted image  of  any  object  outside,  as  a  tree  or  house,  will  be 
reflected  upon  a  screen  placed  in  the  room,  at  a  certain  dis- 
tance in  front  of  the  lens.  The  exact  point  where  the  image 
is  most  distinct,  is  called  the  focus  of  the  lens,  and  the  dis- 
tance from  the  lens  to  the  image,  the  focal  distance.  Now, 
in  the  eye,  the  pigment  of  the  choroid  coat  gives  the  darkened 
room,  the  retina  the  screen,  the  pupil  is  the  opening  in  the 
shutter,  and  the  three  humors  are  the  curved  lenses.  The 
rays  of  light  from  any  object  cross  each  other,  and  an  inverted 
image  is  formed  on  the  retina. 

560.  The  shape  of  the  cornea  and  aqueous  humors  is  con- 
vexo-concave ;  the  vitreous  humor  is  concavo-convex ;  while 


THE   ORGANS   OF   SPECIAL   SENSE.  283 

the  crystalline  humor,  or  lens,  is  convexo-convex.  It  may 
at  first  seem  that  only  one  lens  is  necessary ;  but  light  is  com- 
posed of  three  primary  colors,  which  are  not  equally  refracted 
by  the  same  lens,  hence,  there  would  be  upon  the  edges  of  any 
single  lens  prismatic  colors  which  would  interfere  with  the 
distinctness  of  the  image.  This  is  obviated,  by  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  curvatures  of  the  lenses  to  the  different  colors. 

561.  Suppose  our  object  outside  the  darkened  room  to  be 
at  that  distance  from  the  lens  which  will  give  a  distinct  image 
upon  the  screen ;  now,  if  the  object  approach  the  lens,  the 
image  will  be  indistinct  unless  a  more  convex  lens  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  first,  or  the  distance  between  the  lens  and  screen 
be  increased.     If  the  object  recede,  the  image  will  be  indis- 
'inct  unless  a  less  convex  lens  be  substituted  for  the  first,  or 
ihe  distance  be  lessened  between  the  lens  and  screen. 

By  a  very  nice  adjustment,  the  eye  is  able  to  change  the  con- 
vexity of  its  lenses,  and  also  to  vary  the  focal  distances,  thereby 
adapting  it  to  a  wide  range  of  vision.  This  is  accomplished 
by  the  ciliary  ligament  and  the  muscular  fibres  connected 
with  the  ciliary  processes,  which  change  the  curvature  of  the 
crystalline  lens  and  the  cornea  by  compression  at  the  cir- 
cumference, and  at  the  same  time  throw  the  lens  forward,  in- 
creasing the  distance  between  it  and  the  retina.  The  iris 
also  aids,  in  adapting  the  eye  to  different  distances.  It  con- 
tracts when  viewing  a  near  object,  and  dilates  when  viewing 
one  more  remote. 

562.  When  the  cornea  or  crystalline  lens  is  too  convex,  or 
the  latter  is  too  far  from  the  retina,  short-sightedness  is  pro- 
duced, and  the  defect  is  measurably  remedied  by  the  use  of 
concave  glasses;   when  there  is  too   little   convexity,  long- 
sightedness is  the  result,  and  convex  glasses  should  be  used. 
In  old  age,  the  humors  being  deficient  in  quantity,  cause 
the  flattening  of  the  convex  parts,  hence  the  need  of  convex 
glasses.     In  the  selection  of  glasses,  the  lens  for  each  eye 
should  be  chosen  separately,  as  the  foci  of  the  two  eyes  do 
not  usually  exactly  correspond,  therefore  a  lens  that  will  suit 
one  eye  may  strain  the  other. 


284  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

563.  The  Sclerotic  Coat  gives  form  to  the  eye,  and  serves  for 
the  attachment  of  the  muscles  which  move  the  eye  in  various 
directions.     The  movements  of  the  two  eyeballs  are  always 
simultaneous  and  harmonious,  but  frequently  not  symmetrical. 
The  function  of  the  pigment  of  the  choroid  coat  is  to  absorb  all 
the  luminous  rays  not  necessary  for  vision.     "  If  the  sclerotic 
and  choroid  coats  be  carefully  dissected  off  from  the  posterior 
part  of  the  eye  of  an  ox  or  any  other  large  quadruped,  leaving 
only  the  retina,  and  the  eye  so  prepared  be  placed  in  a  hole 
in  a  window-shutter,  in  a  darkened  room,  with  the  cornea  on 
the  outside,  all  the  illuminated  objects  of  the  external  scene 
will  be  beautifully  depicted,  in  an  inverted  position,  on  the 
retina. 

"  Few  spectacles  are  more  calculated  to  raise  our  admira- 
tion than  this  delicate  picture,  which  Nature  has,  with  such 
exquisite  art  and  with  the  finest  touches  of  her  pencil,  spread 
over  the  smooth  canvas  of  the  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve — 
a  picture  which,  though  scarcely  occupying  a  space  of  half 
an  inch  in  diameter,  contains  the  delineation  of  a  boundless 
scene  of  earth  and  sky,  full  of  all  kinds  of  objects,  some  at 
rest  and  others  in  motion,  yet  all  accurately  represented  as 
to  their  forms,  colors  and  position,  and  followed  in  all  their 
changes  without  the  least  interference,  irregularity  or  con- 
fusion." 

564.  The  Accessory  Parts  of  the  Eye  are  of  two  kinds ;  the 
one  designed  to  protect  the  globe,  or  ball,  the  other  to  move  it 
and  give  the  required  direction  to  fulfill  its  office.    To  enable 
the  eye  to  move  in  all  directions,  without  friction,  it  is  placed 
on  a  cushion  of  fat  which  lines  the  bony  orbit,  thus  protect- 
ing the  globe  on  all  sides  except  in  front ;  here  are  the  Eye- 
lids, which  by  their  alternate  movement  of  depression  and 
elevation    spread   over  the   front  of  the   eyeball  a  watery 
secretion,  by  which  its  surface  is  constantly  bathed,  and  its 
brilliancy  and  transparency  kept  unimpaired. 

By  the  contraction  of  a  small  ring-like  muscle  (the  Orbicu- 
laris),  the  eyelids  quickly  draw  together,  and  as  they  instantly 
separate,  the  secretion  from  the  lachrymal  gland  is  diffused 


THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE.  285 

over  the  conjunctiva.  During  life,  this  muscle  is  ever  active 
and  watchful  for  the  safety  of  the  eye.  When  a  cinder  or 
dust  gets  under  the  eyelids,  it  irritates  the  conjunctiva,  and 
the  movements  of  winking  are  very  rapid.  A  viscid  fluid  is 
spread  along  the  margin  of  the  lid,  which  prevents  the  tears 
running  over  the  eyelid. 

The  Cilia,  or  Eyelashes,  so  interlace  that  protection  is  given 
the  eye  from  light  substances  floating  in  the  air.  The  Eye- 
brows  assist  in  shading  the  eyes  when  exposed  to  strong  light, 
and  they  lend  expression  to  some  emotions  of  the  mind. 

565.  HEARING  is   that  function  by  which   we  obtain  a 
knowledge  of  the  vibratory  motions  of  bodies,  which  consti- 
tute sounds.     Independent  of  the  sense  of  hearing,  sound,  as 
sound,  has  no  existence  in  nature. 

566.  The  External  Ear  collects  the  waves  of  sound  and  re- 
flects them  on  the  membrane  of  the  tympanum ;  this  mem- 
brane facilitates  their  transmission  to  the  chain  of  bones  in 
the  tympanum,  to  the  walls  of  the  cavity  and  to  the  air  it 
contains;  from  the  stirrup  to  the  oval  window;  from  this 
membrane  the  vibrations  are  communicated  to  the  fluid  of 
the  labyrinth,  until  finally  they  are  received  by  the  expan- 
sion of  the  auditory  nerve,  by  which  the  sensation  is  commu- 
nicated to  the  brain. 

567.  The  function  of  the  Auditory  Canal  is  to  receive  and 
conduct  sonorous  vibrations  to  the  membrane  of  the  tympa- 
num.    This  membrane  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  recep- 
tion of  atmospheric  sound-waves.     In  hearing,  the  air  in  the 
tympanic  cavity  plays  an  important  part ;  the  design  of  the 
Eustachian  tube  is  evidently  to  allow  of  equal  atmospheric 
pressure  upon  both  sides  of  the  membrana  tympani.     The 
complicated  communications  of  the  internal  ear  contain  the 
highly  important  parts  of  the  organ  of  hearing.     The  Vesti- 
bule is  the  part  essential  to  the  simplest  exercise  of  this  sense. 
The  Cochlea  and  Semicircular  canals,  or  rather  their  contained 
membranous  canals,  receive  vibrations  through  the  mixed 
membranous  and  bony  tympanic  apparatus.   It  is  asserted  by 
some  physiologists,  that  sound  is  communicated  through  the 


286  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

cranial  bones ;  the  transmission,  however,  through  the  solid 
bones  of  the  head,  if  it  exists,  is  effected  with  difficulty. 

568.  By  this  sense,  therefore,  we  distinguish  the  quality, 
intensity,  pitch,  duration  and  direction  of  sonorous  impulses. 
The  delicacy  with  which  these  distinctions  are  appreciated 
varies  in  different  individuals.     The  complication  and  finish 
of  the  auditory  apparatus,  and  the  perfection  and  delicacy 
of  its  action,  are  second  only  to  those  of  vision. 

569.  The  SENSE  OF  TOUCH,  though  common  to  all  parts 
of  the  Skin  and  adjoining  mucous  membranes,  has  for  its 
special  organ,  the  hand.     It  is  most  admirably  adapted  to  its 
office,  by  reason  of  the  number,  size,  arrangement,  structure 
and  abundant  nervous  supply  of  its  papillae. 

570.  The  functions  of  the  SKIN  are  threefold :  1st,  As  a 
Protecting  membrane ;  2d,  As  a  Medium  for  the  distribution 
of  the  tactile  nerve-filaments;  and  3d,  As  an  Eliminating 
organ.     The  extent  of  the  skin,  as  it  invests  the  entire  sur- 
face of  the  body,  following  all  its  prominences  and  curves, 
its  arrangement  in  layers,  differing  in  structure,  vitality  and 
function,  make  it  an  external  envelope  of  harmonious  unity, 
in  appointment  and  end. 

571.  The  uses  of  the  Epidermis  are  various.     It  serves  to 
cover  and  protect  the  delicate  sensitive  parts  behind  it;  to 
prevent  the  too  rapid  escape  of  heat;  and  to  restrain  the 
evaporation  of  the  fluids  of  the  skin  and  its  appendages,  at 
the  same  time  that  it  furnishes  a  medium  through  which 
those  secretions  can  reach  the  surface  of  the  body. 

572.  The  Cuticle  is  constantly  destroyed  and  replaced,  as 
is  proved  by  the  disappearance  from  the  skin  .of  such  stains 
as  those  produced  by  nitrate  of  silver ;  or  the  scales  thrown 
off  after  some  acute  diseases,  as  scarlatina.     The  restoration 
of  the  cuticle  is  observed  after  the  process  of  vesication  by 
blisters,  and  in  consequence  of  burns  and  scalds.     By  these 
means  large  patches  of  cuticle  are  removed ;  but  they  are 
renewed  in  short  time,  under  favorable  circumstances.     The 
pigmentary  substance  is  also  capable  of  rapid  reproduction. 

573.  The  cutaneous  Papillw  serve  to  increase  the  nutritive 


THE   OKGANS   OF   SPECIAL   SENSE.  287 

and  formative  surface  for  the  generation  of  the  constantly 
wasting  epidermis. 

574.  In  the  Corium,  or  internal  layer  of  the  skin,  resides 
vitality.     Here  the  arteries  of  the  skin  penetrate  from  be- 
neath and  end  in  a  capillary  network ;  the  veins  emerging 
from  the  skin  are  more  numerous  and  much  larger  than  the 
arteries.     The  skin  is  abundantly  supplied  with  nerves,  but 
their  mode  of  termination  has  not  been  accurately  ascer- 
tained. 

575.  The  surface  of  the  skin  possesses  the  power  of  absorb- 
ing both  liquids  and   vapors.     The   principal,  if  not  sole, 
agents  of  this  function  on  the  surface  of  the  body  are  the 
cutaneous  Lymphatic  vessels,  which  are  active  in  proportion 
to  the  tenuity  or  absence  of  the  cuticle.     To  a  slight  extent, 
the  skin  is  a  respiratory  membrane  in  man,  giving  off  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  and  actually  absorbing  oxygen. 

576.  The  sebaceous  matter  from  the  Oil-glands  anoints  the 
hairs  with  oil  in  their  progress  of  growth  from  the  skin,  and 
also  imbues  the  cuticle,  by  which  it  is  rendered  repellent  of 
water.     The  oiliness  of  the  surface  of  the  skin,  occasioned  by 
this  material,  permits  the  ready  adhesion  of  dust  and  dirt, 
and  necessitates  the  use  of  soap  for  the  easy  removal  of  its 
excess.     This  oily  product  often  becomes  inspissated  and  dis- 
tends the  glands,  most  frequently  in  the  face,  and  especially 
on  the  nose;   and  at  the  mouths  of  the  ducts  it  becomes 
mixed  with  dust.     When  pressed  out  it  assumes  the  spiral 
form  of  the  duct;  hence  it  is  commonly  taken  for  a  worm. 
In  the  healthiest  individuals,  the  sebaceous  matter  contains  a 
curious  parasite,  called  the  "  pimple  mite." 

577.  The  uses  of  the  perspirationy  or  sweat,  are  twofold : 
1st,  To  free  the  system  of  a  certain  quantity  of  water ;  and 
2d,  To  eliminate  from  the  body  certain  special  products  of 
chemical  changes. 

The  quantity  of  perspiration  exhaled  by  different  parts  of 
the  body  differs  widely.  Its  general  quantity  is  influenced 
both  by  intrinsic  and  extrinsic  conditions;  thus,  it  is  aug- 
mented by  increased  vascularity  of  the  skin,  by  a  higher 


288  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

temperature  of  the  body,  by  a  quicker  circulation,  and  there- 
fore by  exercise  and  effort  generally.  Perspiration  may  also 
be  induced  by  additional  covering  of  the  body,  and  also  by 
peculiar  conditions  of  the  nervous  system. 

578.  Of  the  external  conditions  which  modify  the  quantity 
of  perspiration,  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  is  most  im- 
portant.    Thus,  in  warm  air  the  activity  of  the  cutaneous 
circulation  is   increased,  which   increases   the   perspiration, 
whilst  cold   air  has  the  opposite  effect;   again,  dry  air  in- 
creases   the    perspiration,    whilst    damp    air    diminishes    it. 
Simple    warmth    acts    by    increasing    the    vascular    action 
through  the  skin,  whilst  dryness  operates  by  maintaining  a 
constant   evaporation   from   this   membrane;    on   the  other 
hand,  cold  diminishes  the  vascularity  of  the  skin,  and  damp- 
ness of  the  air  impedes  evaporation.     The  combination  of 
moisture  with  heat,  however,  increases  the  exhalation  by  the 
skin,  which  then  appears  in  large  drops.     Large  quantities 
of  warm  drinks  also  increase  perspiration. 

Observation. — The  skin  is  said  to  regulate  the  quantity  of 
fluid  given  off  by  the  kidneys,  and  the  quantity  of  fluid  left 
in  reserve  in  the  blood  and  soft  tissues  generally ;  but  the 
kidneys  should  rather  be  regarded  as  the  true  regulators. 
Observation  shows  that  in  cold  weather  the  skin  exhales  less 
and  the  kidneys  excrete  more  fluid ;  while  in  warm  weather 
the  skin  eliminates  more  and  the  kidneys  less. 

579.  The  use  of  the  non-vascular  and  insensible  outgrowth 
of  the  epidermis,  the  hair,  is  protection ;  and  the  function  of 
the  nails  is  not  only  protection,  but  support  to  the  yielding 
softness  of  the  flesh  at  the   finger-tips.     When  they  reach 
exactly  to  the  extremities  of  the  fingers,  they  then  fulfill  the 
intention  for  which  they  were  made,  by  enabling  the  fingers 
to  hold  both  small  and  hard  substances,  and  to  tear  and  peel 
off  skins  of  vegetables  or  animals.    They  are  called  into  action 
where  nicety  of  execution  is  required  in  art. 


THE   ORGANS  OF   SPECIAL   SENSE.  289 


\  51.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE. — Perversion  of 
the  Sense  of  Taste— Of  Smell.  How  the  Eye  should  be  Used.  Cause 
of  Amaurosis.  The  Effect  of  Continued  Oblique  Position  of  the  Eye 
—  Viewing  Objects  at  Different  Distances.  Bathing  the  Eye — Re- 
moval of  Dust.  Causes  of  Defective  Hearing.  Parts  Essential  to  Hear- 
ing. Clothing.  Kind  of  Material  for  Clothing.  Class  of  Persons  that 
need  more  Clothing.  Cleanliness  of  Clothing.  Bathing — Modes  of 
Bathing — Time  for  Baths — General  Rules  for  Bathing —  Water  a  Cura- 
tive Agent.  Air  Beneficial  to  the  Skin.  Effect  of  Light  on  the  Skin. 
Treatment  of  Burns  and  Scalds— Of  Corns— Of  Frost-Bites. 

580.  The  Sense  of  Taste  becomes  perverted   by  the  im- 
moderate use  of  stimulants  and  condiments  and  the  endless 
admixture  of  different  articles  of  food.     These  indulgences 
lessen  the  sensibility  of  the  nerve.     In  children,  this  sense  is 
usually  acute,  and  their  preference  is  for  food  of  the  mildest 
character. 

This  sense  is  varied  more  than  any  other  by  the  refine- 
ments of  social  life ;  thus,  the  Indian's  like  or  dislike  regard- 
ing particular  articles  of  food  generally  extends  to  every 
individual  of  the  tribe,  but  among  civilized  men  no  two  per- 
sons are  alike  in  all  their  tastes. 

581.  The  Sense  of  Smell  may  become  impaired  by  being 
frequently  and  powerfully  stimulated  by  pungent  articles,  as 
"  smelling  salts ;"  also  catarrh,  or  any  influence  that  thickens 
the  mucous  membrane  or  renders  it  dry,  diminishes  the  sensi- 
bility of  the  nerve  of  smell.     Hence,  the  sense  becomes  very 
obtuse  in  persons  addicted  to  the  pernicious  habit  of  "snuff- 
taking." 

582.  The  Eye  is  a  delicate  organ,  requiring  care  to  preserve 
it  in  health ;  like  other  organs  of  the  body,  it  should  be  exer- 
cised and  then  rested.     The  observance  of  this  rule  is  par- 
ticularly needful  to   those   whose  eyes  are  predisposed   to 
inflammation.     If  the  eye  be  used  too  long  at  one  time,  it 
becomes  wearied  and  the  power  of  vision  dimi»ished.     On 
the  contrary,  if  not  called  into  exercise,  its  functions  are 
enfeebled. 

583.  &udden  transitions  of  light  should  be  avoided.    The  iris 

25  N 


290  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND    HYGIENE. 

enlarges  or  contracts  according  to  the  degree  of  light,  but  the 
change  is  not  instantaneous.  Hence  the  imperfect  vision  in 
passing  from  a  strong  to  a  dim  light ;  an  overwhelming  sensa- 
tion is  experienced  when  passing  from  a  dimly-lighted  apart- 
ment to  one  brilliantly  illuminated.  A  common  cause  of 
Amaurosis,  or  paralysis  of  the  retina,  is  using  the  eye  for  a 
long  time  in  a  very  intense  light. 

584.  Long-continued  oblique  position  of  the  eye  should  be 
avoided,  or  it  may  produce  an  unnatural  contraction  of  the 
muscles  called  into  action,  producing  squinting  or  strabis- 
mus.    The  vision  of  a  cross  eye  is  always  defective,  as  only 
one  eye  is  used  in  viewing  the  object  toward  which  the  atten- 
tion is  directed.     The  defect  is  remedied  by  a  surgical  opera- 
tion.    Children  should  not  be  allowed  to  imitate  the  "  cross 
eye,"  as  what  is  intended  to  be  but  temporary,  may  become 
permanent. 

585.  The  eye  of  the  child  should  be  trained  to  view  objects  at 
different  distances.     The  ciliary  muscles  are  as  capable  of 
education  as  any  others,  and  may  be  made  to  act  very  effi- 
ciently in  adapting  the  lenses  to  view  near  or  remote  objects. 
Care  on  the  part  of  the  instructor  and  parent  regarding  the 
distance  from  the  eye  at  which  the  child  should  hold  his 
book  or  work  would  save  many  cases  of  defective  vision. 

586.  Bathing  the  eye  in  tepid  or  cold  water  is  beneficial; 
provided  the  eye  be  gently  wiped  and  usually  toward  the 
inner  angle ;  also,  to  remove  the  secretion  from  the  lachrymal 
gland  that  sometimes  collects  at  this  angle,  as  it  contains 
saline  matter. 

Observation. — Particles  of  dust  or  cinders  should  be  removed 
from  the  eye  by  means  of  soft  linen  or  silk.  If  the  substance 
is  concealed  beneath  the  upper  lid,  take  a  smooth  rod,  like  a 
knitting  needle,  place  it  over  the  upper  lid  in  contact  with 
and  just  under  the  edge  of  the  orbit;  hold  it  firmly  by  means 
of  the  lashes,  turn  the  lid  gently  back  over  the  pencil  or 
needle,  and  remove  the  intrusive  substance.  If  unsuccessful, 
too  many  attempts  should  not  be  made,  as  inflammation  may 
be  induced,  but  consult  a  surgeon  immediately. 


THE   ORGANS   OF  SPECIAL  SENSE.  291 

587.  The  Sense  of  Searing,  like  the  other  senses,  is  capable 
of  great  improvement.     By  cultivation,  the  blind  are  able  to 
judge  with  great  accuracy  of  the  distance  of  bodies  in  motion, 
and  even  of  the  height  of  buildings.     The  Indian  will  distin- 
guish sounds  inaudible  to  the  untrained  ear. 

588.  Hearing  may  be  impaired  by  the  destruction  of  the 
membrane  of  the  tympanum.     The  obstruction  of  the  Eusta- 
chian  tube  is  not  unfrequently  the  cause  of  defective  hearing. 
By  its  closure,  the  vibratory  effect  of  the  air  within  the  tym- 
panum is  diminished  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  closure 
of  the  side  of  a  drum.     Enlarged  tonsils,  inflammation  of  the 
fauces  and  nasal  passages,  often  attend  and  follow  colds  and 
attacks  of  scarlet  fever,  etc.     For  such  deafness,  remedial 
means  should  be  directed  by  a  skillful  physician. 

Observation. — The  nostrums  for  the  cure  of  deafness  are 
usually  of  an  oily  character,  and  may  be  useful  in  cases  of 
defective  hearing  caused  by  an  accumulation  of  wax  in  the 
external  canal  of  the  ear ;  but  a  few  drops  of  any  animal  oil 
will  serve  the  purpose  as  efficiently. 

589.  In  hearing,  the  integrity  of  the  drum  of  the  ear  is  not 
absolutely  essential  for  the  due  performance  of  the  function. 
The  loss  of  the  small  bones  does  not  necessarily  cause  deafness 
unless  the  stirrup  is  diseased ;  but  if  the  auditory  nerve  or 
membranous  vestibule  becomes  diseased,  there  is  no  remedial 
agent  for  the  loss  of  hearing. 

590.  The  Hygiene  of  the  Skin,  the  chief  organ  of  the  Sense 
of  Touch,  holds  important  relation  to  the  general  health  of 
the  body.  ,  To  maintain  its  healthy  action  in  every  part, 
attention  must  be  given  to  Clothing,  Bathing,  Light  and  Air. 

591.  CLOTHING  is  chiefly  useful  in  preventing  the  escape 
of  too  much  heat  from  the  body,  and  in  protecting  the  body 
from  exposure  to  the  evil  effects  of  a  varying  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere.     In  selecting  and  applying  clothing,  the  fol- 
lowing should  be  observed : 

592.  The  material  for  clothing  should  be  a  bad  conductor  of 
heat.     As  air  is  a  non-conductor,  material  should  be  chosen 
which  is  capable  of  retaining  much  air  in  its  meshes ;  and  as 


292          ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

moisture  increases  the  conducting  power,  the  material  should 
not  be  such  as  will  absorb  or  retain  moisture.  Furs  retain 
much  air  in  their  meshes  and  absorb  scarcely  any  moisture, 
and  consequently,  are  well  adapted  to  those  subject  to  the 
great  exposures  of  very  cold  climates.  Woolen  cloth,  next  to 
furs  and  eider  down,  retains  the  most  air  and  absorbs  the 
least  moisture,  hence  it  is  a  good  article  of  apparel  for  all  per- 
sons, unless  too  irritable  to  an  over-sensitive  skin.  In  that 
case,  the  flannel  may  be  lined  with  cotton,  or  silk  may  be 
substituted.  When  of  sufficient  body  or  thickness,  silk  is  a 
good  article  for  inner  clothing,  excepting  when  it  produces 
too  much  disturbance  of  the  electricity  of  the  system.  Next 
to  these  articles,  cotton  is  well  adapted  for  garments  worn 
next  the  skin.  Linen  should  never  be  worn  by  persons  in 
any  way  enfeebled,  even  in  warm  weather  or  in  hot  climates. 
It  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat  and  readily  absorbs  moisture ; 
hence,  with  such  covering,  the  body  is  surrounded  by  a  layer 
of  moisture  instead  of  air. 

593.  The  clothing  should  be  both  porous  and  loosely  fitted. 
The  necessity  of  porous  clothing  is  seen  in  the  wearing  of 
India-rubber  overshoes.     In  a  short  time  the  hose  and  under- 
boot  become  damp  from  retained  perspiration.     The  residual 
matter  thus  left  in  contact  with  the  skin  is  reconveyed  into 
the  system  by  absorption,  causing  headache  and  other  dis- 
eases.  Unimpeded  transpiration,  and  a  layer  of  air  secured  by 
loose  clothing,  enable  the  skin  to  imbibe  oxygen,  which  gives 
it  tone  and  vigor. 

Observation. — As  the  design  of  additional  clothing  is  to 
enclose  a  series  of  strata  of  warm  air,  we  should,  in  going 
from  a  warm  room  into  cold  air,  put  on  our  extra  covering 
some  time  previous  to  going  out,  that  the  layers  of  air  which 
we  carry  with  us  may  be  warmed  by  the  heat  of  the  room, 
and  not  borrowed  from  the  heat  of  the  body. 

594.  The  clothing  must  be  suited  to  the  state  of  the  atmosphere 
and  to  the  condition  of  the  individual.     Sudden  changes  of 
temperature  should  be  regarded ;  but  it  is  usually  unsafe  to 
make  changes  from  thick  to  thin  clothing,  excepting  in  the 


THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE.  293 

morning,  when  the  vital  powers  are  in  full  play.  The  even- 
ing usually  demands  an  extra  garment,  as  the  atmosphere  is 
more  cool  and  damp,  and  we  have  less  vital  energy  than  in 
the  early  part  of  the  day. 

Observation. — Many  a  young  lady  has  laid  the  foundation 
of  a  fatal  disease  by  exchanging  the  thick  dress,  warm  hose 
and  shoes,  for  the  flimsy  fabric,  thin  hose  and  shoes  which 
are  considered  suitable  for  the  ball-room  or  party.  All  sud- 
den changes  of  this  kind  are  attended  with  hazard,  which  is 
proportionate  to  the  weakness  or  exhaustion  of  the  system 
when  the  change  is  made. 

595.  The  child  and  the  aged  person  require  more  clothing 
than  the  vigorous  person  of  middle  age.     Judging  from  ob- 
servation, we  should  infer  that  children  needed  less  clothing 
than  adults.    The  exposure  to  which  the  vain  and  thoughtless 
mother  subjects  her  child  very  frequently  lays  the  foundation 
for  future  disease.     The  system  of  "hardening"  children,  of 
which  we  sometimes  hear,  is  as  inhuman  as  it  is  unprofitable. 
To  make  the  child  robust  and  active,  he  must  have  nutritious 
food  at  stated  hours,  free  exercise  in  the  open  air,  and  be 
guarded  from  the  cold  by  proper  apparel.     Those  who  have 
outlived  the  energies  of  adult  life  also  need  special  care  re- 
garding a  proper  amount  of  clothing. 

596.  When  a  vital  organ  is  diseased,  more  clothing  is  needed. 
In  consumption,   dyspepsia,  and   even   headache,  the   skin 
usually  is  pale  and  the  extremities  cold,  because  less  heat  is 
generated.     Persons  suffering  from   these   complaints   need 
more  clothing  than  those  with  healthy  organs. 

597.  Persons  of  active  habits  need  less  clothing  than  those  of 
sedentary  employment.     Exercise  increases  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  consequently,  the  vital  activities  become  more 
energetic,  and  more  heat  is  produced.    We  need  less  clothing 
when  walking  than  when  riding. 

598.  The  clothing  should  be  kept  clean.     Some  portion  of 
the  transpired  fluids  of  the  body  must  necessarily  be  ab- 
sorbed by  the  clothing.     Hence,   warmth,  cleanliness   and 
health  require  that  it  should   be  frequently  changed   and 

26  » 


294  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

thoroughly  washed.  Under-garments  worn  through  the  day 
should  not  be  worn  through  the  night,  nor  the  reverse.  When 
taken  from  the  body,  such  garments  should  not  be  hung  in 
the  closet  or  put  into  the  drawer,  but  exposed  to  a  current  of 
fresh  air. 

The  covering  of  beds  should  be  thoroughly  aired  every 
morning,  and  frequently  renewed. 

599.  Damp  clothing  is  injurious.     All   articles   from   the 
laundry  should  be  well  aired  before  being  worn.     When  the 
clothing  is  wet  by  accident  or  exposure,  it  should  be  changed 
immediately,  unless  the  person  is  exercising  so  vigorously  as 
to  prevent  the  slightest  chill.     When  the  exercise  ceases,  the 
body  should  be  rubbed  with  a  dry  crash  towel  till  a  thorough 
reaction  takes  place. 

Beds  and  bedding  that  have  not  been  used  for  some  weeks 
become  damp,  and  should  be  dried  before  use.  A  hostess 
cannot  be  guilty  of  a  more  inhospitable  act  than  that  of 
sending  her  guest  to  her  fine  guest-chamber,  to  occupy  a  bed 
which  has  been  long  unused. 

600.  BATHING  is  indispensable  to  sound  health  as  well  as 
to  cleanliness.     The  skin  soon  becomes  covered  with  a  mix- 
ture of  perspirable  matter,  oil  and  dust,  which,  if  allowed  to 
remain,  interferes  with  the  action  of  the  skin  as  an  excretory 
organ.     This  increases  the  action  of  the  lungs,  kidneys,  liver, 
etc.,  which  take  upon  themselves  the  excretory  work  which 
the  skin  fails  to  perform.     By  overwork  they  soon  become 
diseased,  and  if  it  is  continued,  the  result  will  be  consumption 
and  other  diseases  of  the  vital  organs.     Again,  obstruction 
of  the  pores  will  prevent  respiration  through  the  skin,  and 
deprive  the  blood  of  one  source  of  its  oxygen  and  one  outlet 
of  its  carbonic  acid. 

601.  Bathing  gives  tone  and  vigor  to  the  internal  organs. 
When  cool  water  is  applied  to  the  body,  the  skin  instantly 
shrinks  and  the  whole  of  its  tissue  contracts.     This  contrac- 
tion diminishes  the  capacity  of  the  blood-vessels,  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  blood  is  thrown  upon  the  internal  organs.     The 
nervous  system  is  stimulated  and  communicates  its  stimulus 


THE   ORGANS   OF   SPECIAL  SENSE.  295 

to  the  whole  system.  This  causes  a  more  energetic  action  of 
the  heart  and  blood-vessels,  and  a  consequent  rush  of  blood 
back  to  the  skin.  This  is  the  state  termed  reaction,  the  first 
object  and  purpose  of  every  form  of  bathing.  By  this  re- 
action the  internal  organs  are  relieved,  respiration  is  light- 
ened, the  heart  is  made  to  beat  calm  and  free,  the  tone  of  the 
muscular  system  is  increased,  the  appetite  is  sharpened,  the 
mind  more  clear  and  strong,  and  the  whole  system  seems  to 
possess  new  power.  Regularity  in  bathing  is  necessary  to 
produce  permanently  good  effects. 

602.  The  simplest   modes  of  bathing  are  by  means  of  the 
sponge   or  the  shallow   baths.      The   body   may   be   quickly 
sponged   over,   wiped   dry   and   followed   by  friction.     The 
water  may  be  warm  or  cold.     If  cold,  the  bath  should  be 
taken  in,  the  early  part  of  the  day,  and  followed  by  exercise. 
If  exercise  cannot  be  taken,  the  individual  should  rest  under 
covering.     The  warm  bath  should  usually  be  taken  just  be- 
fore retiring.     If  taken  at  other  hours,  it  should  be  followed 
by  rest  from  half  an  hour  to  one  hour  under  proper  covering. 

603.  The  shallow  bath,  in  which  the  body  is  partly  immersed 
in  water,  is  very  pleasant  and  safe,  provided  the  bather  exer- 
cises in  it  by  vigorous  rubbing  and  does  not  remain  too  long. 
For  a  cold  bath  it  is  not  often  safe  to  exceed  five  minutes, 
and  with  delicate  persons  the  time  should  rarely  exceed  two 
or  three  minutes.     A  bath  is  considered  cold  when  below 
75° ;  temperate,  from  75°  to  85° ;  tepid,  85°  to  95°.     This 
and  every  other  form  of  bath  should  be  followed  by  thorough 
friction  with  a  coarse  towel  or  flesh-brush. 

604.  The  frequency  of  bathing  must  depend  upon  the  con- 
dition and  occupation  of  the  individual.     Daily  bathing  may 
be  practiced  with  profit  by  most  persons,  but  to  the  studious 
and  sedentary  it  is  in  most  cases  absolutely  indispensable. 

605.  The  hour  for  ablution  is  of  importance.     It  should 
neither  immediately  precede  nor  follow  a  meal.     The  same  is 
true  of  severe  mental  and  muscular  exercise.     The  bath  is 
less  beneficial  in  the  afternoon  than  the  forenoon.     The  best 
time  for  cold  baths  is  two  or  three  hours  after  breakfast. 


296  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY   AND   HYGIENE. 

The  system  is  then  at  "  flood- tide,"  while  from  that  time  till 
the  retiring  hour  the  tide  is  ebbing ;  hence,  the  worst  time  for 
a  cold  bath  is  at  bed-time.  For  those  who  cannot  choose 
their  time,  the  hour  of  rising  will  answer  very  well — that  is, 
for  many  persons,  especially  if  they  become  accustomed  to 
the  use  of  water  by  beginning  at  another  and  a  better  hour. 
If  the  mind  and  body  are  brightened  by  the  early  bath,  and 
an  exhilaration  follows,  the  bath  is  beneficial ;  if  on  the  con- 
trary, languor  follows,  and  the  skin  looks  blue  or  too  pale,  it 
is  injurious.  That  the  bath  is  to  be  followed  by  exercise 
must  not  be  forgotten. 

606.  In  diseases  of  the  skin,  and  many  chronic  ailments  of 
the  internal  organs,  bathing  is  a  remedial  measure  of  great 
power.     In  disease  which  has  baffled  the  skill  of  physicians 
depending  wholly  upon   internal  remedies,  the  effect  of  a 
systematic  course  of  baths  is  often  surprising.     Like  other 
curative  means,  the  baths  should  be  directed  by  those  who 
thoroughly  understand  the  use  of  water  as  a  remedial  agency. 
Matters  of  diet,  exercise,  etc.,  require  adaptation  to  the  treat- 
ment of  the  particular  case.    Those  who  desire  the  full  benefit 
of  these  means  must  avail  themselves  of  the  .appliances  of  a 
well-conducted  water-cure  establishment. 

607.  A  few  simple  rules  must  be  observed  in  bathing.     The 
face  and  head  should  be  wet  in  cold  water  before  the  bath. 
Cool  baths  should  not  be  taken  when  the  person  is  chilly, 
perspiring  or  greatly  fatigued.     All  general  baths  should  be 
taken  briskly,  the  skin  well  rubbed  and  quickly  dried,  fol- 
lowed by  a  healthy  glow  over  the  whole  body.     Exercise 
should  immediately  follow  all  baths.     Warm  baths  at  night 
should  be  taken  just  before  retiring;   at  other  hours  they 
should  be  followed  immediately  by  rest,  under   coverings, 
after  which  exercise  should  be  taken. 

Soap  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  removal  of  dirt  from 
the  skin,  but  if  it  is  too  freely  used  on  the  general  sur- 
face of  the  body,  it  dissolves  the  oily  exudation  of  the  seba- 
ceous glands,  leaving  the  skin  dry  or  wrinkled.  The  ex- 
ternal epithelial  cells  may  be  removed  too  rapidly  when 


THE  OKGANS  OF  SPECIAL,  SENSE.  297 

soap  is  used  in  excess,  consequently  the  skin  is  not  properly 
protected. 

608.  Pure  AIR  is  an  agent  of  great  importance  in  the 
functions  of  the  skin.     It  imparts  to  this   membrane  some 
oxygen,  and  receives  from  it  carbonic  acid  gas.     It  likewise 
removes  perspiration  and  portions  of  the  oily  secretion. 

609.  LIGHT  exercises  a  very  salutary  influence  upon  the 
skin.     It  is  no  less  essential  to  the  vigor  of  animal  than  of 
vegetable  life.     Dwelling-houses  should  be  built  with  refer- 
ence to  the  free  admission  of  sunlight  and  air  into  all  occu- 
pied rooms.     The  dark,  damp  rooms  so  much  used  by  indi- 
gent families  and  domestics  in  cities  and  large  villages  are 
fruitful  causes  of  vice,  poverty  and  suffering.     Ladies  often 
suffer  seriously  from  too  much  exclusion  of  sunlight.     Ex- 
cepting in  very  warm  weather,  they  should  practice  sitting 
or  exercising  in  the  full  sunshine  of  the  out-door  world. 

610.  BURNS  AND  SCALDS.    When  blisters  are  formed,  the 
epidermis  is  separated  from  the  other  layer  of  the  skin  by 
the  effusion  of  serum  ;  this  fluid  should  be  let  free  by  punc- 
turing the  cuticle,  care  being  taken  not  to  remove  the  thin 
raised  skin,  as  it  makes  the  best  possible  protection  to  the 
sensitive,  inflamed  tissues  beneath.     When  this  thin  outside 
layer  of  skin  is  removed,  immediately  cover  the  denuded 
parts  with  wheat  flour,  or  a  plaster  made  of  lard  and  bees'- 
wax  or  the  white  of  an  egg ;  in  a  word,  substitute  a  cuticle 
to  protect  the  exposed  nerves  from  the  air.     When  dressings 
are  applied,  they  should  not  be  removed  until  they  become 
dryland  irritating. 

To  prevent  vesication,  when  only  a  small  patch  of  the 
skin  is  scalded  or  burned,  apply  steadily  cold  water  until  the 
smarting  pain  ceases ;  then  put  on  a  simple  dressing,  "  not  to 
take  out  the  fire  or  heal  it,"  but  to  protect  the  injured 
membrane. 

611.  When  the  epidermis,  in  particular  spots,  is  exposed  to 
excessive  pressure  or  friction,  it  becomes  too  much  thickened, 
producing  Corns.     They  are  not  necessarily  confined  to  the 
feet,  but  are  produced  in  front  of  the  clavicle  of  the  soldier 

N* 


298 

from  the  pressure  of  his  musket,  or  on  the  knee  of  the  cobbler 
The  pain  of  the  callosity  is  due  to  their  exciting  inflamma- 
tion in  the  sensitive  dermis  upon  which  they  press.  Remove 
the  pressure,  and  the  affected  part  is  restored  to  its  normal 
state. 

612.  FROST-BITE  is  usually  manifested  first  upon  parts  un- 
protected by  covering,  as  the  face  or  ears,  and  especially  the 
nose.  In  such  case,  the  skin  first  becomes  red,  from  con- 
gestion of  the  dilated  capillary  vessels;  next  it  becomes 
bluish,  from  arrest  of  the  circulation;  and  afterward  of  a 
dead  white  hue.  To  restore  circulation  and  sensibility,  rub 
the  frozen  part  with  snow  or  apply  iced  water.  Keep  the 
sufferer  at  first  in  a  cold  room,  and  let  the  return  to  a  higher 
temperature  be  gradual  and  cautious,  or  gangrene  may  super- 
vene. The  Chilblain  is  not  produced  by  the  action  of  cold, 
but  by  the  effect  of  heat  on  the  chilled  extremity. 


APPENDIX. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

CARE  OF  THE  SICK. 

$  1.  IN  every  home,  however  humble  or  dignified,  woman  is 
usually  the  NURSE.  Nature  seems  to  have  endowed  her  in  an 
especial  manner  to  minister  at  the  couch  of  disease  and  suffering. 
To  be  a  good  nurse  requires  a  high  type  of  womanhood ;  she 
should  have  both  mental  and  physical  power,  blended  with  integ- 
rity and  Christian  trust. 

If  "good  nursing  is  half  the  cure,"  how  important  that  the 
daughter  be  early  taught  how  to  prepare  drinks  and  nourishments ; 
to  administer  medicine ;  and  to  perform  the  varied  and  important 
duties  of  the  faithful  nurse ! 

The  physician  well  knows  that  his  attentions  upon  the  sick  are 
quite  unavailing  unless  the  nurse  obeys  his  directions.  For  a 
nurse,  or  immediate  relatives  or  friends  of  the  sick,  to  put  their 
judgment  in  opposition  to  that  of  the  physician,  is  not  only  arro- 
gant, but  endangers  the  patient.  The  room  for  the  sick  should  be 
selected  where  sunlight  may  enter,  and  as  far  from  external  noise 
as  possible.  It  is  poor  economy,  not  to  say  unkind,  to  keep  a  sick 
man  in  a  small,  ill-arranged  bed-room,  when  a  more  spacious  and 
airy  room  is  kept  for  only  occasional  "callers."  All  superfluous 
furniture  should  be  removed  from  the  sick  room. 

In  the  first  stages  of  disease,  it  is  always  proper  treatment  to 
rest  both  body  and  mind.  It  is  wrong  to  tempt  the  appetite  of  a 
sick  person ;  the  disinclination  for  food  is  the  warning  of  Nature 
that  the  system  cannot  well  digest  it. 

The  beneficial  effects  of  bathing  can  hardly  be  over-estimated, 
but  the  mode  of  the  bath  should  be  directed  by  the  medical  ad- 
viser. The  best  time,  however,  for  bathing  is  when  the  patient 
feels  most  vigorous  and  freest  from  exhaustion.  Care  is  necessary 
to  wipe  dry  the  skin,  particularly  between  the  fingers  and  toes,  and 

299 


300  APPENDIX. 

also  the  flexions  of  the  joints.  Friction  from  a  brush,  moreen 
mitten  or  a  dry  flannel  that  has  been  saturated  with  salted  water 
tends  to  relieve  restlessness  in  patients.  Air-baths  have  a  tran- 
quillizing influence. 

Quiet  should  reign  m  the  sick  room.  No  more  persons  should 
enter  or  remain  in  it  than  the  welfare  of  the  patient  demands.  It 
is  the  duty  of  the  physician  to  direct  when  visitors  should  be  ad- 
mitted or  excluded,  and  the  nurse  should  enforce  the  directions. 
The  movements  of  the  attendants  should  be  gentle :  no  bustling  to 
"'  clear  up  the  room"  at  a  fixed  time ;  this  should  be  done  quietly 
and  when  it  will  give  the  least  annoyance  to  the  sick.  (It  may  be 
necessary  to  use  a  damp  cloth  in  dusting  the  furniture,  also  the 
carpet,  especially  if  the  patient  has  disease  of  the  lungs. )  Creak- 
ing hinges  should  be  oiled;  shutting  doors  violently  and  heavy 
walking  avoided.  All  unnecessary  conversation  should  be  deferred. 
If  a  colloquy  must  be  carried  on,  let  the  tone  be  so  high  that  the 
patient,  if  interested,  can  thoroughly  comprehend  it. 

The  making  of  the  bed  is  often  badly  conducted.  All  bunches 
should  be  removed,  the  material  of  the  bed  laid  even  and  a  thin 
quilt  spread  smoothly  over  a  mattress.  When  convenient,  have  the 
head  of  the  bed  northerly  (182),  and  so  situated,  at  least,  that  the 
sick  man  may  look  on  something  more  pleasurable  than  a  table  of 
glasses  and  phials.  A  nurse  should  never  manifest  impatience  in 
arranging  the  pillows,  but  try  to  adapt  them  to  the  comfort  of  the 
weary  patient. 

All  utensils  employed  in  the  sick  room  should  be  kept  clean. 
Water  designed  for  the  patient  to  drink  should  not  stand  long  in 
an  open  glass  or  pitcher,  but  be  given  fresh  from  a  spring  or  well. 
A  very  sick  person  is  fatigued  by  being  raised  to  receive  drinks, 
hence,  a  bent  tube  or  a  cup  with  a  spout  should  be  used. 

Both  the  apparel  and  the  bed-linen  should  be  changed  more  fre- 
quently in  sickness  than  in  health,  and  oftener  in  acute  than  in 
chronic  diseases.  All  clothing,  whether  from  the  laundry  or 
bureau,  should  be  well  dried  and  warmed  by  a  fire  previous  to 
being  put  on  the  bed  or  the  patient. 

No  agent  is  of  more  importance  to  the  sick  room  than  pure  air; 
hence,  the  nurse,  with  all  convenient  speed,  should  remove  every- 
thing that  can  emit  an  unpleasant  odor.  She  should  be  chary  of 
keeping  ripe  fruit  or  bouquets  of  flowers  any  length  of  time  in  the 
sick  chamber.  When  a  disinfectant  is  needed,  procure  at  the 
druggist's,  chloride  of  lime.  To  change  quickly  and  effectively  the 


APPENDIX.  301 

air  of  the  sick  room,  cover  the  patient's  bed  with  an  extra  blanket 
and  closely  envelop  his  head  and  neck,  except  the  mouth  and 
nose  ;  the  door  and  windows  can  then  be  safely  opened  for  a  short 
time  without  detriment.  After  the  windows  are  closed,  retain  the 
extra  coverings  on  the  patient  until  the  room  is  of  proper  warmth. 
Unless  duly  protected,  the  patient  should  never  feel  currents  of  air, 
although  fresh  air  should  be  constantly  admitted  into  the  sick 
room. 

A  well-adjusted  thermometer  is  indispensable,  as  the  feelings  of 
the  patient  or  nurse  are  not  to  be  relied  on  as  a  true  index  of  the 
temperature  of  the  room.  Regulating  the  warmth  of  the  patient 
is  one  of  the  many  duties  of  the  nurse.  There  is  a  "  sweating  tem- 
perature;" when  this  is  exceeded,  perspiration  will  cease  if  it  has 
been  present;  or  that  it  will  not  take  place  during  a  high  tem- 
perature. The  patient  should  no  more  be  allowed  to  complain  of 
too  much  heat,  without  an  attempt  at  its  reduction,  than  he  should 
be  permitted  to  remain  chilly  when  it  is  possible  to  remove  it. 

The  nurse  should  not  confine  herself  to  the  sick  room  longer 
than  six  hours  at  a  time.  She  should  exercise  daily  in  the  open 
air,  also  eat  and  sleep  as  regularly  as  possible.  No  doubts  or  fears 
of  the  patient's  recovery,  either  by  a  look  or  by  a  word,  should  be 
communicated  by  the  nurse  in  the  chamber  of  the  sick ;  this  duty 
devolves  upon  the  physician. 

Medicines  assist  the  natural  powers  of  the  system  to  remove  dis- 
ease. They  should  be  given  regularly,  judiciously  and  with  a 
cheerful  manner.  Life  itself  is  often  at  the  mercy  of  the  nurse, 
and  depends  on  the  faithful  discharge  of  her  duty. 

Drinks  have  a  more  decided  influence  upon  the  system  than  is 
generally  admitted ;  hence,  the  nurse  should  never  depart  from 
the  quality  of  the  drink,  nor  even  exceed  the  due  or  prescribed 
quantity.  Giving  "herb  teas"  without  the  sanction  of  the  phy- 
sician may  cause  serious  evil. 

The  food  of  the  sick  should  be  prepared  in  the  neatest  and  most 
careful  manner,  and  the  nurse  ought  to  obey  implicitly  the  phy- 
sician's directions  about  diet.  When  a  patient  is  convalescent,  the 
desire  for  food  is  generally  strong;  great  care,  firmness  and  pa- 
tience is  required,  that  the  food  be  prepared  suitably  and  given  at 
the  proper  time. 

We  append  a  few  modes  of  preparing  nourishment  for  the  sick. 

CRUST  COFFEE. — Take  light,  sweet  bread  or  crackers,  and  brown 
them  thoroughly  as  you  would  coffee  berry ;  when  wanted  for  use, 
26 


302  APPENDIX. 

pour  over  boiling  water  (the  crusts  will  admit  of  several  replenish- 
ings  of  boiling  water) ;  add  sugar  and  cream  to  suit  the  condition 
of  the  patient. 

GRUELS. — Corn  meal  requires  to  be  boiled  several  hours  to  be 
suitable  nourishment  for  the  sick.  The  mode  of  preparing  gruel 
should  be  suited  to  the  case  and  directed  by  the  physician.  Wheat, 
or  oat-meal,  farina  and  sago,  can  be  prepared  in  less  time,  though 
they  must  be  well  cooked.  Add  salt  while  cooking. 

Egg  Gruel. — Take  the  yolks  of  two  eggs,  boiled  hard,  and  with 
a  knife  reduce  them  to  a  fine  powder  ;  beat  this  into  a  flour  gruel 
made  of  new  milk;  salt  and  spices  may  be  added  if  the  condition 
of  the  patient  admits. 

BEEP  TEA. — Meat  contains  principles  that  may  be  extracted, 
some  by  cold,  others  by  warm,  and  others,  again,  by  boiling,  water ; 
it  should  be  cut  very  fine,  and  submitted  for  three  hours  each  time, 
in  succession,  to  half  its  weight  of  cold,  of  warm  and  of  boiling 
water ;  the  fluids  strained  from  the  first  and  second  macerations 
are  to  be  mixed  with  that  strained  from  the  boiling  process,  and 
the  mixture  should  be  brought  to  a  boiling  heat  to  cook  it — the  fat 
skimmed  off ;  add  a  few  drops  of  some  acid,  with  salt,  for  a  flavor. 

g  2.  The  duty  of  the  WATCHER  is  scarcely  less  responsible  than 
that  of  the  nurse ;  and,  like  the  nurse,  she  should  ever  be  cheerful, 
kind,  firm  and  attentive  in  the  presence  of  the  patient. 

The  watcher  should  be  prompt,  and  reach  the  house  of  the  sick 
at  an  early  hour ;  before  entering  the  sick  room,  she  should  eat  a 
simple,  nutritious  supper,  and  also  during  the  night  take  some 
plain  food.  She  should  be  furnished  with  an  extra  garment,  as  a 
heavy  shawl,  to  wear  toward  morning,  when  the  system  becomes 
exhausted. 

The  directions  about  the  sick,  especially  the  administration  of 
medicine,  should  be  written  for  the  temporary  watcher.  Whatever 
may  be  wanted  during  the  night  should  be  brought  into  the  sick 
chamber  or  the  adjoining  room  before  the  family  retires  to  sleep, 
that  the  slumbers  of  the  patient  be  not  disturbed  by  haste  or 
searching  for  needed  articles. 

Sperm  candles  are  preferable  for  the  sick  room.  Kerosene,  in 
burning,  emits  a  disagreeable  odor,  often  annoying  to  the  patient. 
All  lights  ought  to  be  so  arranged  as  not  to  be  reflected  in  the  part 
of  the  room  where  the  sick  lie. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  watchers  make  themselves  acceptable  to 


APPENDIX.  303 

the  patient  by  exhausting  conversation.  If  two  watchers  are 
needed,  it  is  more  imperative  that  they  refrain  from  talking,  and 
particularly  whispering. 

Most  sick  persons  have  special  need  of  nourishment  about  four 
or  five  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

When  taking  care  of  the  sick,  light-colored  clothing  should  be 
worn  in  preference  to  dark  apparel,  especially  if  the  disease  is 
of  a  contagious  character.  It  is  always  safe  for  the  watcher  to 
change  her  apparel  worn  in  the  sick  chamber  before  entering  upon 
her  family  duties.  Disease  is  often  communicated  by  the  clothing. 

It  can  hardly  be  expected  that  the  farmer  who  has  been  laboring 
hard  in  the  field,  or  the  mechanic  who  has  toiled  during  the  day, 
is  qualified  to  render  all  those  little  attentions  that  a  sick  person 
requires.  Hence,  would  it  not  be  more  benevolent  and  economical 
to  employ  and  pay  watchers  who  are  qualified  by  knowledge  and 
training  to  perform  this  duty  in  a  faithful  manner,  while  the 
kindness  and  sympathy  of  friends  may  be  practically  manifested 
by  assisting  to  defray  the  expenses  of  these  qualified  and  useful 
assistants  ? 


POISONS  AND   THEIR  ANTIDOTES. 

\  3.  POISONING,  either  from  accident  or  design,  is  of  such  fre- 
quency, that  every  household  should  keep  some  available  remedy, 
and  every  person  should  know  what  to  do  in  such  alarming  contin- 
gencies. Nearly  every  poison  has  its  antidote,  which,  if  used  at 
once,  may  prevent  much  suffering  and  even  death. 

When  known  that  poison  has  been  taken  into  the  stomach,  the 
first  thing  is  to  evacuate  it  by  the  use  of  the  stomach-pump  or  an 
emetic,  unless  vomiting  takes  place  spontaneously. 

As  an  emetic,  ground  Mustard  mixed  in  warm  water  is  always 
safe.  Take  one  tablespoonful  to  one  pint  of  warm  water.  Give  the 
patient  one-half  in  the  first  instance,  and  the  remainder  in  fifteen 
minutes,  if  vomiting  has  not  commenced.  In  the  interval,  drink 
copious  draughts  of  warm  water.  Irritate  the  throat  with  a  feather 
or  the  finger,  to  induce  vomiting.  After  vomiting  has  begun,  give 
mucilaginous  drinks;  such  as  flaxseed  tea,  gum-arabic  water,  or 
slippery  elm. 

If  the  patient  is  drowsy,  give  a  strong  infusion  of  cold  coffee, 
keep  him  walking,  slap  smartly  on  the  back,  use  electricity ;  it  may 
be  well  to  dash  cold  water  on  the  head,  to  keep  the  patient  awake 


304 


APPENDIX. 


After  the  poison  is  evacuated  from  the  stomach,  to  sustain  vita) 
action,  give  warm  water  and  wine  or  brandy.  If  the  limbs  are  cold, 
apply  warmth  and  friction. 

In  ALL  cases  of  poisoning,  call  immediately  a  physician,  as  the 
after-treatment  is  of  great  importance. 


POISONS. 

Aconite  (Monkshood). 
Belladona  (Deadly  Night-Shade). 
Bryony. 
Camphor. 

Conium  ^  ^  • 

Cicuta    }  (Water  Hemlock). 

Croton  Oil. 

Digitalis  (Foxglove). 

Dulcamara  (Bitter-Sweet). 

Gamboge. 

Hyoscyamus  (Henbane). 

Laudanum. 

Lobelia. 

Morphine. 

Opium. 

Paregoric. 

Sanguinara  (Blood-Hoot). 

Savin  Oil. 

Spigelia  (Carolina  Pink). 

Stramonium  (Thorn  Apple). 

Strychnine  (Nux  Vomica). 

Tobacco. 

Arnica. 

Prussic  Acid. 

Bitter  Almonds  (Oil  of). 

Laurel  Water. 

Ammonia  (Hartshorn). 

Potash. 

Soda. 


ANTIDOTES  OB  REMEDIES  FOB  POISONS. 


For  Vegetable  poisons  give  an  emetic 
of  Mustard;  drink  freely  of  warm 
water;  irritate  the  throat  with  a 
feather  to  induce  vomiting.  Keep 
the  patient  awake  until  a  phy- 
sician arrives. 


Iodine. 


Vinegar  and  water. 

}  Drink,  at  once,  one  teaspoonful  of 
Water  of  Hartshorn  (ammonia)  in 
one  pint  of  water. 

Antidote  is  Vinegar  or  Lemon  Juice; 
followed  with  sweet,  castor  or  lin- 
seed oil.  Thick  cream  is  a  sub- 
stitute for  oil.  No  emetic. 

"I  Starch  or  wheat  flour  beat  in  water, 
/     Take  a  Mustard  emetic. 


APPENDIX. 


305 


POISONS. 


Saltpetre  (Nitrate  of  Potassa). 
Chili  Saltpetre  (Nitrate  of  Soda),  j 


ANTIDOTES  OR  REMEDIES  FOR  POISONS. 
1  Take   at  once,   a  Mustard  emetic; 
>     drink  copious  draughts  of  warm 

water ;  followed  with  oil  or  cream. 


}Two  teaspoonfuls  of  table  salt  (chlo- 
ride of  sodium)  mixed  in  one  pint 
of  water. 


Corrosive  Sublimate  (bug  poison). 
White  Precipitate. 
Bed  Precipitate. 
Vermilion. 


Arsenic. 

Cobalt  (fly  powder). 

King's  Yellow. 

Ratsbane. 

Scheele's  Green. 


Acetate  of  Lead  (Sugar  of  Lead). 

White  Lead. 

Litharge. 


Antimony  (•"Wine  of). 
Tartar  Emetic. 


Pearl-ash. 

Ley  (from  wood-ashes). 

Salts  of  Tartar. 


Sulphuric  Acid  (Oil  of  Vitriol). 
Nitric  "     (Aquafortis). 

Muriatic       "     (Marine). 
Oxalic  Acid. 

26* 


Beat  the  Whites  of  six  Eggs  in  one 
quart  of  cold  water;  give  a  cup- 
ful every  two  minutes,  to  induce 
vomiting.  A  substitute  for  white 
of  eggs  is  soap-suds  slightly  thick- 
ened with  wheat  flour.  Emetics 
should  not  be  given. 

Use  a  stomach-pump  as  quickly  as 
possible,  or  give  a  Mustard  emetic 
until  one  is  obtained.  After  free 
vomiting,  give  large  quantities 
of  Calcined  Magnesia.  The  anti- 
dote for  Arsenic  is  Hydrated  Per- 
oxide of  Iron. 

•  Use  a  Mustard  emetic ;  followed  by 
Epsom  or  Glauber  Salts.  The 
antidote  is  diluted  Sulphuric  Acid. 

The  antidote  is  ground  Nutgall.  A 
substitute,  oak  or  Peruvian  bark  ; 
followed  by  a  teaspoonful  of  pare- 
goric. 

}  Drink  freely  of  Vinegar  and  water ; 
followed  with  a  mucilage,  as  flax- 
seed  tea. 

Drink  largely  of  water  or  a  muci- 
lage. It  is  important  that  some- 
thing be  given  quickly,  to  neu- 
tralize the  acid.  The  antidote  is 
Calcined  Magnesia.  Chalk,  lime, 
strong  soap-suds  are  substitutes 
for  magnesia. 


306  APPENDIX. 

POISONS.  ANTIDOTES  OR  REMEDIES  FOR  POISONS. 

^  Give  two  tablespoonfuls  of  Calcined 
Matches  (Phosphorus).  ,,  .  ,,  :.  ,  ,  ., 

>  Maqnesia;  followed  by  mucilag- 
Kat  Exterminator.  .  y  ,  . '  J 

)      mous  drinks. 

Verdigris.  "»The  antidote  is   Cooking  Soda,  or 

Blue  Vitriol.  J       White  of  Eggs.   Drink  milk  freely. 


Sting  of  Insects. 


Ammonia,  or  cooking  soda  moistened 
with  water,  applied  in  the  form 
of  a  paste.  The  wound  may  be 
sucked,  followed  by  applications 
of  water. 


Charcoal  Fumes.  1  Fresh    air   and  Artificial  Bespira- 

Gas  or  Burning  Fluid.  /     tion. 

For  the  Treatment  of  Wounds  and  Arrest  of  Hemorrhage  (363). 
For  the  Eecovery  of  Asphyxiated  Persons  (430). 
For  Burns  and  Scalds  (610). 


GLOSSARY. 


AB-DO/MEN.  [L.  abdo,  to  hide.]  That  part 
of  the  body  which  lies  between  the  tho- 
rax and  the  bottom  of  the  pelvis. 

AB-DOM'IN-IS.    Pertaining  to  the  abdomen. 

AB-DCC/TOR.  [L.  abduco,  to  lead  away.]  A 
mnscle  which  moves  certain  parts,  by 
separating  them  from  the  axis  of  the 
body. 

A-CE-TAB/C-LUM.  [L.  acetum,  vinegar.]  The 
socket  for  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone; 
an  ancient  vessel  for  holding  vinegar. 

A-CE/TIC.  [L.  acetum,  vinegar.]  Relating 
to  acetic  acid.  This  is  always  composed 
of  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbon  in  the 
same  proportion. 

A-CHII/US.  A  term  applied  to  the  tendon 
of  the  two  large  muscles  of  the  leg. 

A-CROftm-oN.  Gr.  a/cpos,  akros,  highest,  and 
w/xos,  omos,  shoulder.]  A  process  of  the 
scapula  that  joins  to  the  clavicle. 

AD-DUC'TOR.  [L.  adduco,  to  lead  to.]  A 
muscle  which  draws  one  part  of  the 
body  toward  another. 

AL-BU'MEN.  [L.  albus,  white.]  An  animal 
substance  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
white  of  an  egg. 

A-LU'MIN-UM.  [L.]  The  name  given  to  the 
metallic  base  of  alumina. 

AL/VE-O-LAR.  [L.  alveolus,  a  socket.]  Per- 
taining to  the  sockets  of  the  teeth. 

AM-HO/NI-A.  An  alkali.  It  is  composed 
of  three  equivalents  of  hydrogen  and  one 
of  nitrogen. 

AM-PHI-AR-THRO/SIS.  [Gr.  aju.0t,  amphi, 
both,  and  apflpooSta,  arthrodia,  well  arti- 
culated.] A  mixed  articulation. 

A-NAS/TO-MOSE.  [Gr.  ava,  ana,  through, 
and  orojota,  stoma,  mouth.]  The  com- 
munication of  arteries  and  veins  with 
each  other. 

AN-A-TOM/I-CAL.  Relating  to  the  parts  of 
the  body  when  dissected  or  separated. 


A-NAT'O-MY.  [Gr.  ova,  ana,  through,  and 
TOJXTJ,  tome,  a  cutting.]  The  description 
of  the  structure  of  animals.  The  word 
anatomy  properly  signifies  dissection. 

AN-GI-OI/O-GT.  [Gr.  ayyeiov,  angeion,  a 
vessel,  and  Aoyos,  logos,  discourse.]  A 
description  of  the  vessels  of  the  body; 
as  the  veins  and  arteries. 

AN/QU-LI.  [L.  anguhis,  a  corner.]  A  term 
applied  to  certain  muscles  on  account 
of  their  form. 

AN-I-MAI/CC-LS.  [L.  animalcula,  a  little 
animal.]  Animals  that  are  only  per- 
ceptible by  means  of  a  microscope. 

AN/NU-LAR.  [L.  annulus,  a  ring.]  Having 
the  form  of  a  ring. 

AN-TI'CUS.  [L.]  A  term  applied  to  certain 
muscles. 

A-ORT/A.  [Gr.  aopnj,  aorte;  from  aijp,  aer, 
air,  and  rrjpeo),  tereo,  to  keep.]  The  great 
artery  that  arises  from  the  left  ventricle 
of  the  heart. 

AP-O-NEU-RO/SIS.  [Gr.  airo,  apo,  from,  and 
vevpov,  neuron,  a  nerve.]  The  mem- 
branous expansions  of  muscles  and  ten- 
dons. The  ancients  called  every  white 
tendon  neuron,  a  nerve. 

AP-PA-RA/TUS.  [L.  apparo,  to  prepare.]  An 
assemblage  of  organs  designed  to  produce 
certain  results. 

AP-PEND/IX.  [L.  ad  and  pendeo,  to  hang 
from.]  Something  appended  or  added. 

A/QUE-OUS.  [L.  aqua,  water.]  Partaking 
of  the  nature  of  water. 

A-RACH/NOID.  [Gr.  apaxvrj,  arachne,  a  spider, 
and  ei£os,  etdos,  form.]  Resembling  a 
spider's  web.  A  thin  membrane  that 
covers  the  brain. 

AE/BOR.  [L.J  A  tree.  Arbor  vitse.  The 
tree  of  life.  A  term  applied  to  a  part  of 
the  cerebellum. 

AB/TE-RT.  [Gr.  <njp,  aer,  air,  and  rqpeco, 
307 


308 


GLOSSARY. 


tereo,  to  keep;  because  the  ancients 
thought  that  the  arteries  contained  only 
air.]v  A  tube  through  which  blood  flows 
from  the  heart. 

A-RYT-E/sroiD.  [Gr.  apvraiva,  arutaina,  a 
ewer,  and  ei5o?,  etdos,  form.]  The  name 
of  a  cartilage  of  the  larynx. 

AS-CEND/ENS.    [L.J    Ascending;  rising. 

As-PHYXft-A.  [Gr.  a,  a,  not,  and  <r<f»vfi?, 
sphyxis,  pulse.]  Originally,  want  of 
pulse;  now  used  for  suspended  respira- 
tion, or  apparent  death. 

AS-TRAG'A-LUS.  [Gr.]  The  name  of  a  bone 
of  the  foot.  One  of  the  tarsal  bones. 

AUD-I/TION.    [L.  audio,  to  hear.]    Hearing. 

ATJD-IT-O'RI-US.  [L.]  Pertaining  to  the  or- 
gan of  hearing. 

AU/RI-CLE.  [L.  auricula,  the  external  ear ; 
from  auris,  the  ear.]  A  cavity  of  the 
heart. 

AX-II/LA.    [L.]    The  armpit. 

AxfrL-LA-RY.  Belonging  or  relating  to  the 
armpit. 

A-ZOTB/.  [Gr.  a,  a,  not,  and  fwij,  zoe,  life.] 
Nitrogen.  One  of  the  constituent  ele- 
ments of  the  atmosphere.  So  named  be- 
cause it  will  not  sustain  life. 

BEN-ZO/IC.  Benzole  add.  A  peculiar  vege- 
table acid  obtained  from  benzoin  and 

some  other  balsams. 
BICEPS.    [L.  bis,  twice,  and  caput,  a  head.] 

A  name  applied  to  muscles  with  two 

heads  at  one  extremity. 
BI-CUS/PIDS.  [L.  bis,  two,  and  cuspis,  a  point.] 

Teeth  that  have  two  points  upon  their 

crown. 
BILE.    [L.  bilis.']    A  yellow,  viscid   fluid 

secreted  by  the  liver. 
BI-PEN/NI-FORM.    [L.  bis,  two,  and  penna,  a 

feather.]    Haying  fibres  on  each  Bide  of 

a  common  tendon. 
BRACH/I-AL.    [L.  brachium.]    Belonging  to 

the  arm. 
BRE/VIS.     [L.]     Brevis,     short;     brevior, 

shorter. 
BRONCH/I-A,  -.a.     [L.]     A  division  of  the 

trachea  that  passes  to  the  lungs. 
BRONCH-I/TIS.    [L.]     An  inflammation  of 

the  bronchia. 
BCC-CI-NA^TOR.    [L.  buccinum,  a  trumpet.] 

The  name  of  a  muscle  of  the  cheek,  so 

named   because    used  in  blowing  wind 

instruments. 


MU-CO/SA  [L.  bvrsa,  a  purse,  and 
mucosa,  viscous.]  Small  sacs,  containing 
a  viscid  fluid,  situated  about  the  joints, 
under  tendons. 


.    [L.]    Blind;  the  name  given  to 

the  commencement  of  the  colon. 
CAI/CI-CM.    [L.]  The  metallic  basis  of  lime 
CALX,  CAI/CIS.    [L.]    The  heel-bone. 
CAP/IL-LA-RY.     [L.  capillus,  a  hair.]     Re- 

sembling  a  hair;  a  small  tube. 
CAP/SULE.    [L.  capsula,  a  little  chest.]    A 

membranous  bag,  enclosing  a  part. 
CA/PUT.    [L.]    The  head.    Caput  coli,  the 

head  of  the  colon. 
CAR/BON.  [L.  carbo,  a  coal.]  Pure  charcoal 

An  elementary  combustible  substance. 
CAR-BON/IO.    Pertaining  to  carbon. 
CAR/M-AC.      [Gr.    icapSia,    kardia,    heart.] 

Relating  to  the  heart,  or  upper  orifice 

of  the  stomach. 
CAR/NE-A,   -.s.      [L.    caro,   carnis,    flesh.] 

Fleshy. 
CA-ROT/JD.      [Gr.   icapo?,    Jcaros,  lethargy.] 

The  great  arteries  of  the  neck  that  con- 

vey blood  to  the  heart.    The  ancients 

supposed   drowsiness    to   be   seated   in 

these  arteries. 

CAR/PUS,  -i.    [L.]    The  wrist. 
CAR/TI-LAGE.     [L.  cartilago.]     Gristle.     A 

smooth,  elastic    substance,  softer  than 

bone. 

CAU-CA/SIAN.    One  of  the  races  of  men. 
CA/VA.  [L.]   Hollow.    Vena  Cava.   A  name 

given  to  the  two  great  veins  of  the  body. 
CEI/LU-LAR.    [L.  cellula,  a  little  cell.]  Com- 

posed of  cells. 
CER-E-BEI/LUM.      [L.]      The    hinder    and 

lower  part  of  the  brain,  or  the  little 

brain. 
CER/E-BRO-SPI^NAL.    Relating  to  the  brain 

and  spine. 
CEB/E-BRUM.     [L.]     The  front  and  large 

part  of  the  brain.    The  term  is  some- 

times applied  to  the  whole  contents  of 

the  cranium. 

CER/VI-CAL.    Relating  to  the  neck. 
CER/VIX.    [L.]    The  neck. 
CHEST.    [Sax.]    The  thorax  ;  the  trunk  of 

the  body  from  the  neck  to  the  abdomen. 
CHLO/RINE.     [Gr.  x^pos*  chloros,  green.] 

Chlorine  gas,  so  named  from  its  color. 
CHOR/DA,  -.«.    [L.]  A  cord.   An  assemblage 

of  fibres. 


GLOSSARY. 


309 


CHO/ROID.  [Gr.  x°PiOV>  chorion.']  A  term 
applied  to  several  parts  of  the  body  that 
resemble  the  skin. 

CHYLE.  [Gr.  \v\os,  chulos,  jnice.]  A  nutri- 
tive fluid,  of  a  whitish  appearance,  which 
is  extracted  from  food  by  the  action  of 
the  digestive  organs. 

CHYL-I-FI-CA/TION.  [L.  chylus,  chyle,  and 
facio,  to  make.]  The  process  by  which 
chyle  is  formed. 

CHYME.  [Gr.  x"M<>s,  chumos,  juice.]  A  kind 
of  grayish  pulp  formed  from  the  food  In 
the  stomach. 

CHYM-I-F-ICA/TION.  [L.  chumos,  chyme,  and 
facio,  to  make.]  The  process  by  which 
chyme  is  formed. 

CII/IA-RT.  [L.  cilia,  eyelashes.]  Belonging 
to  the  eyelids. 

CIN-E-RI/TIOCS.  [L.  cinus,  ashes.]  Having 
the  color  of  ashes. 

CLAV'I-CLB.  [L.  clavicula,  from  clams,  a 
key.]  The  collar-bone;  so  called  from 
its  resemblance  in  shape  to  an  ancient 
key. 

CLEI/DO.  A  term  applied  to  some  muscles 
that  are  attached  to  the  clavicle. 

CO-AG^U-LUM.  [L.]  A  coagulated  mass;  a 
clot  of  blood. 

COC/CYX.  [Gr.]  An  assemblage  of  bones 
joined  to  the  sacrum. 

COCH/LE-A.  [Gr.  KoxAw,  kochto,  to  twist ;  or 
L.  cochlea,  a  screw.]  A  cavity  of  the  ear 
resembling  in  form  a  snail-shell. 

Cofam.  [Gr.  KcoAov,  kolon,  I  arrest.]  A  por- 
tion of  the  large  intestine. 

CO-LUM/NA,  -M.    [L.]    A  column  or  pillar. 

COM/MIS-SURE.'  [L.  committo,  I  join  to- 
gether.] A  point  of  union  between  two 
parts. 

CoM-Mufais.  [L.]  A  name  applied  to  cer- 
tain muscles. 

COM-PLEX/US.  [L.  complecfor,  to  embrace.] 
The  name  of  a  muscle  that  embraces 
many  attachments. 

COM-PRESS/OR.  [L.  con,  together,  and  premo, 
pr&ssus,  to  press.]  A  term  applied  to  some 
muscles  that  compress  the  parts  to  which 
they  are  attached. 

CON/DYLE.  [Gr.  KovSvAo?,  kondulos,  a 
knuckle,  a  protuberance.]  A  promi- 
nence on  the  end  of  a  bone. 

CON-JUNC-TI^VA.  [L.  con,  together,  andjungo, 
to  join.]  The  membrane  that  covers  the 
anterior  part  of  tne  globe  of  the  eye. 


COP'PER.   A  metal  of  a  pale  red  coK  r  tinged 

with  yellow. 
COR-A/COID.    [Gr.  /copaf,  korax,  a  crow,  and 

«So?,  etdos,  form.]      A  process  of   the 

scapula  shaped  like  the  beak  of  a  crow. 
CO'RI-UM.   [Gr.  x°P">",  chorion,  skin.]    The 

true  skin. 

CoRitfi-A.  [L.  cornu,  a  horn.]  The  trans- 
parent membrane  in  the  fore  part  of  the 

eye. 
COR/PO-RA.    [L.  corpus,  a  body.]    The  name 

given  to  eminences  or  projections  found 

in  the  brain  and  some  other  parts  of  the 

body. 
COS/TA.     [L.  costa,  a  coast,  siue  or  rib.] 

A  rib. 
CRIB/RI-FORM.     [L.  cribrum,  a  sieve,  and 

forma,  form.]    A  plate  of  the  ethmoid 

bone,  through  which  the  olfactory  nerve 

passes  to  the  nose. 
CRI/COID.    [Gr.  Kpticos,  krikos,  a  ring,  and 

eiSos,  etdos,  form.]    A  name  given  to  a 

cartilage  of  the  larynx,  from  its  form. 
CRYSTAL-LINE.    [L.  crystallinus,  consisting 

of  crystal.]     Crystalline  lens,  one  of  the 

humors  of  the  eye.    It  is  convex,  white, 

firm  and  transparent. 
CU'BI-TUS,  -i.    [L.  cubitus,  the  elbow.]    One 

of  the  bones  of  the  forearm,  also  called 

the  ulna. 
CU/BOID.    [Gr.  Kvj3o?,  Tcubos,  a  cube,  and 

eiSo?,  etdos,  form.]    Having  nearly  the 

form  of  a  cube. 
CU-NE/I-FORM.    [L.  cuneus,  a  wedge.]    The 

name  of  bones  in  the  wrist  and  foot. 
CUS/PID.    [L.  cuspis,  a  point.]    Having  one 

point. 
CU-TA^NE-OUS.    [L.  cutis,  skin.]    Belonging 

to  the  skin. 
CU/TI-CLE.    [L.  cutis.]    The  external  layer 

of  the  skin. 
CO/TIS  VE/RA.     [L.  cutis,  skin,  and  vera, 

true.]    The  internal  layer  of  the  skin; 

the  true  skin. 

DE-CUS-SA/TION.  [L.  decutio,  I  divide.]  A 
union  in  the  shape  of  an  X  or  cross. 

DEL/TOID.  [Gr.  SeA/ro,  delta,  the  Greek  let- 
ter A,  and  eiSo?,  etdos,  form  ]  The  name 
of  a  muscle  that  resembles  in  form  the 
Greek  letter  A. 

DENT/AL.  [L.  dens,  tooth.]  Pertaining  to 
the  teeth. 

DE-PRESS/OR.    [L.]    The  name  of  a  muscle 


310 


GLOSSARY. 


that  draws  down  the  part  to  which  it  is 
attached. 

DERM'OID.  [Gr.  fiep/oto,  derma,  the  skin, 
and  «8os,  etdos,  form.]  Resembling  skin. 

DB-SCEND/ENS.  [L.  de  and  scando,  to  climb.] 
Descending,  falling. 

DtfA-PHRAGM.  [Gr.  fiia<£pavnxa,  diaphragma, 
a  partition.]  The  midriff;  a  muscle  sepa- 
rating the  chest  from  the  abdomen. 

DI-AR-RHOE/A.  [Gr.  Siappew,  diarrheo,  to  flow 
through.]  A  morbidly  frequent  evacua- 
tion of  the  intestines. 

DI-AR-THRO'SIS.  [Gr.  810,  dia,  through,  and 
apOpovv,  arthroun,  to  fasten  by  a  joint.] 
An  articulation  which  permits  the  bones 
to  moTO  freely  on  each  other  in  every 
direction. 

DI-AS/TO-LE.  [Gr.  fiiaoreAAw,  diastello,  to 
put  asunder.]  The  dilatation  of  the 
heart  and  arteries  when  the  blood  enters 
them. 

DI-GES/TION.  [L.  digestio.]  The  process  of 
dissolving  food  in  the  stomach  and  pre- 
paring it  for  circulation  and  nourish- 
ment. 

DIG-I-TO/RUM.  [L.  digittis,  a  finger.]  A 
term  applied  to  certain  muscles  of  the 
extremities.  • 

DOR/SAL.  [L.  dorsum,  the  back.]  Pertain- 
ing to  the  back. 

DU-O-DE/NUM.  [L,  duodenus,  of  twelve 
fingers'  breadth.]  The  first  portion  of 
the  small  intestine. 

DU/RA  MA/TER.  [L.  durus,  hard,  and 
mater,  mother.]  The  outermost  mem- 
brane of  the  brain. 

DYB/EN-TER-Y.  [Gr.  Svs,  dus,  bad,  and 
cvrepia,  enteria,  intestines.]  A  discharge 
of  blood  and  mucus  from  the  intestines 
attended  with  tenesmus. 

Drs-PEp/si-A.  [Gr.  Sus,  dus,  bad,  and  netrro), 
pepto,  to  digest.]  Indigestion,  or  diffi- 
culty of  digestion. 

EN-AM'EL.  [Fr.]  The  smooth,  hard  sab- 
stance  which  covers  the  crown  or  visible 
part  of  a  tooth. 

EN-DOS-MO'SIS.  [Gr.  evSov,  endon,  within, 
and  oxrfxo?,  osmos,  to  push.]  The  trans- 
mission of  fluids  through  membranes, 
inward. 

E-PEN'DY-MA.  [Gr.]  The  membrane  which 
lines  the  ventricles  of  the  brain. 

EP-I-DERM'IS.      [Gr.    CTTI,   epi,   upon,    and 


Sepua,  derma,  the  skin.]  The  superficial 
layer  of  the  skin. 

EP-I-QLOT^TIS.  [Gr.  CTTI,  epi,  upon,  and 
•yAwrra,  glotta,  the  tongue.]  One  of  the 
cartilages  of  the  glottis. 

ETH'MOID.  [Gr.  Tj0/xos,  etiimos,  a  sieve,  and 
ei8os,  etdos,  a  form.]  A  bone  of  the  skull. 

EU-STA/CHI-AN  TUBE.  A  channel  from  the 
fauces  to  the  middle  ear,  named  from 
Eustachius,  who  first  described  it. 

EX'CRE-MENT.  [L.  cxcerno,  to  separate.] 
Matter  excreted  and  ejected ;  alvine  dis- 
charges. 

EX'CRE-TO-RY.  A  little  duct  or  vessel,  des- 
tined to  receive  secreted  fluids  and  tc 
excrete  or  discharge  them ;  also  a  se- 
cretory vessel. 

EX-HA/LANT.  [L.  exhalo,  to  send  forth 
vapor.]  Having  the  quality  of  exhaling 
or  evaporating. 

EX-TENS/OR.  [L.]  A  name  applied  to  a 
muscle  that  serves  to  extend  any  part 
of  the  body ;  opposed  to  Flexor. 

FA/CIAL.  [L.  fades,  face.]  Pertaining  to 
the  face. 

FALX.  [L.  falx,  a  scythe.]  A  process  of 
the  dura  mater  shaped  like  a  scythe. 

FAS/CI-A.  [L.  fascia,  a  band.]  A  tendinous 
expansion  or  aponeurosis. 

FAS-CIC/U-LUS,  -LI.  [L.  fastis,  a  bundle.] 
A  little  bundle. 

FAUX,  -CE8.    [L.]    The  top  of  the  throat. 

FEM/O-RAL.    Pertaining  to  the  femur. 

FE/MUR.    [L.]    The  thigh-bone. 

FE-NES/TRA,  -UM.  [L.  fenestra,  a  window.] 
A  term  applied  to  some  openings  into 
the  internal  ear. 

FI/BRE.  [L.fibra.]  An  organic  filament  or 
thread  which  enters  into  the  composition 
of  every  animal  and  vegetable  texture. 

FI/BRIN.  A  peculiar  organic  substance 
found  in  animals  and  vegetables ;  it  is  a 
solid  substance,  tough,  elastic  and  com- 
posed of  thready  fibres. 

FI/BRO-CAR/TI-LAGE.  An  organic  tissue,  par- 
taking of  the  nature  of  fibrous  tissue  and 
that  of  cartilage. 

FIB/U-LA.  [L.,  a  clasp.]  The  outer  and 
lessor  bone  of  the  leg. 

FII/A-MENT.  [L.filamenta,  threads.]  A  fine 
thread,  of  which  flesh,  nerves,  skin,  etc., 
are  composed. 

FLEX'ION.    [L.Jlectio.]    The  act  of  bending. 


GLOSSARY. 


311 


FOI/LI-CLE.      [L.  folliculus,  a  small  bag.] 

A  gland ;  a  little  bag  in  animal  bodies. 
FORI/ARM.  The  part  of  the  upper  extremity 

between  the  elbow  and  hand. 
FOS/SA.    [L.,  a  ditch.]    A  cavity  in  a  bone, 

with  a  large  aperture. 
FRJE/NUM.    [L.,  a  bridle.]    Frsenum  linguse, 

the  bridle  of  the  tongue. 
FUNC/TION.    [L.  fungor,  to  perform.]    The 

action  of  an  organ  or  system  of  organs. 
FCN/GI-FORM.      [L.    fungus    and    forma.'] 

Having  terminations  like  the  head  of  a 

fungus,  or  a  mushroom. 

GAN/GLI-ON,  -A.  [Gr.]  An  enlargement  in 
the  course  of  a  nerve. 

GASTRIC.  [Gr.  yacmjp,  gaster,  the  stomach.] 
Belonging  to  the  stomach. 

GAS-TROC-NE/MI-US.  [Gr.  yewmjp,  gaster,  the 
stomach,  and  KVTJUJI,  kneme,  the  leg.] 
The  name  of  large,  muscles  of  the  leg. 

GEI/A-TIN.  [L.  gdo,  to  congeal.]  A  con- 
crete animal  substance,  transparent  and 
soluble  in  water. 

GING/LY-FORM.  [Gr.  yiyyAv/mos,  ginglymos, 
a  knife-like  joint,  and  eifios,  etdos,  a 
form.]  An  articulation  that  only  admits 
of  motion  in  two  directions. 

GLE/NOID.  [Gr.  yArjvij,  glene,  a  cavity.]  A 
term  applied  to  some  articulate  cavities 
of  bones. 

GLOS/SA.  [Gr.]  The  tongue.  Names  com- 
pounded with  this  word  are  applied  to 
muscles  of  the  tongue. 

GLOS/SO-PHA-RTN/GI-AL.  Relating  to  the 
tongue  and  pharynx. 

GLOT/TIS.  [Gr.]  The  narrow  opening  at 
the  upper  part  of  the  larynx. 

GLU/TE-CS.  [Gr.]  A  name  given  to  muscles 
of  the  hip. 

GOM-PHO/sia.  [Gr.  yo^ovv,  gomphoun,  a 
nail.]  The  immovable  articulation  of  the 
teeth  with  the  jaw-bone,  like  a  nail  in  a 
board. 

HEM'OR-RHAGE.  [Gr.  aipa,  haima,  blood, 
and  pnyvvia,  regnuo,  to  burst.]  A  dis- 
charge of  blood  from  an  artery  or  brain. 

HIS-TOI/O-GY.  [Gr.  ioros,  histos,  tissue,  and 
Aoyo?,  logos,  discourse.]  A  description 
of  the  minute  structure  of  the  body. 

HU/MER-US.    [L.]    The  bone  of  the  arm. 

HY/A-LOID.  [Gr.]  A  transparent  mem- 
brane of  the  eye. 


HY/DRO-GEN.  [Gr.  vSwp,  fiydor,  Mater,  and 
yevvaw,  gennao,  to  generate.]  A  gaa 
which  constitutes  one  of  the  elements 
of  water. 

HY/GI-ENE.  [Gr.  vyieivov,  hugietnon,  health.] 
The  part  of  medicine  which  treats  of  the 
preservation  of  health. 

HY/OID.  [Gr.  v  and  eiSos,  etdos,  shape.] 
A  bone  of  the  tongue  resembling  the 
Greek  letter  Upsilon  in  shape. 

HY/PO-GLOS/SAI,.  Under  the  tongue.  The 
name  of  a  nerve  of  the  tongue. 

II/E-UM.    [Gr.  «Ao>,  eilo,  to  wind.]    A  por- 

tion of  the  small  intestines. 
II/I-UM.    The  haunch-bone. 
IN-CI'SOR.     [L.  incido,  to  cut.]     A  front 

tooth  that  cuts  or  divides. 
IN/DEX.    [L.  indico,  to  show.]    The  fore- 

finger; the  pointing  finger. 
IN-NOM-I-NA/TA.     [L.  in,  not,  and  nomen, 

name.]  Parts  which  have  no  proper  name, 
IN-OS/CU-LATE.    [L.  in,  and  osculatus,  from 

osculor,  to  kiss.]    To  unite,  as  two  ves- 

sels at  their  extremities. 
.IN/TER.    [L.]    Between. 
IN-TER-COST/AL.     [L.  inter,   between,    and 

costa,  a  rib.]    Between  the  ribs. 
IN-TER-NO'DI-I.      [L.    inter,    between,   and 

nodus,  knot.]    A  term  applied  to  some 

muscles  of  the  forearm. 
IN-TER-STI/TIAL.     [L.  inter,  between,    and 

sto,  to  stand.]    Pertaining  to  or  contain- 

ing interstices. 
IN-TES/TINES.    [L.  intus,  within.]    The  canal 

that  extends  from  the  stomach  to  the 

anus. 
I/RIS.   [L.,  the  rainbow.]   The  colored  circle 

that  surrounds  the  pupil  of  the  eye. 
I/VO-RY.    A  hard,  solid,  fine-grained  sub 

stance  of  a  fine  white  color  ;  the  tusk  of 

an  elephant. 


[L.,  empty.]    A  portion  of  the 
small  intestine. 

JO/GU-LAR.  [L.  jugulum,  the  neck.]  Re- 
lating to  the  throat.  The  great  veins 
of  the  neck. 

LA/BI-UM,  LA/BI-I.  [L.]  The  lips. 
LAB/Y-RINTH.  [Gr.J  v'The  internal  ear,  so 

named  from  its  many  windings. 
LACH/RY-MAL.  [L.  lachryma,  a  tear.]  Per- 

taining to  tears. 


312 


GLOSSARY. 


LAC^TE-AL.  [L.  lac,  milk.]  A  small  vessel 
or  tube  of  animal  bodies  for  conveying 
chyle  from  the  intestine  to  the  thoracic 
duct. 

LAM'I-NA,  -x.  [L.]  A  plate  or  thin  coat 
lying  over  another. 

LAR/TNX.  [Gr.  \apvyf ,  larunx.]  The  upper 
part  of  the  windpipe. 

LAR-TN-GI/TIS.   Inflammation  of  the  larynx. 

LA-TIS/SI-MUS,  -MI.  [L.,  superlative  of  latus, 
broad.]  A  term  applied  to  some  muscles. 

LE-VA/TOR.  [L.  levo,  to  raise.]  A  name  ap- 
plied to  a  muscle  that  raises  some  part. 

LIG/A-MENT.  [L.  ligo,  to  bind.]  A  strong, 
compact  substance  serving  to  bind  one 
bone  to  another. 

LIN/E-A,  -M.    [L.]    A  line. 

LIN/GUA,  -JE.    [L.]    A  tongue. 

LIV'ER.  The  name  of  one  of  the  abdominal 
organs,  the  largest  gland  in  the  system. 
It  is  situated  below  the  diaphragm,  and 
secretes  the  bile. 

LOBE.    A  round  projecting  part  of  an  organ. 

LON/GUS,  LON'GI-OR.  [L.,  long,  longer.]  A 
term  applied  to  several  muscles. 

LUM/BAR.  [L.  lumbus,  the  loins.]  Pertain- 
ing to  the  loins. 

LYMPH.  [L.  lympha,  water.]  A  colorless 
fluid  in  animal  bodies,  and  contained  in 
vessels  called  lymphatics. 

LYM-PHAT/IC.  A  vessel  of  animal  bodies  that 
contains  or  conveys  lymph. 

MAG-NE/SI-CM.  The  metallic  base  of  mag- 
nesia. 

MAG/NUS,  -NA,  -NUM.  [L.  great.]  A  term 
applied  to  certain  muscles. 

MA/JOR.  [L.,  greater.]  Greater  in  extent 
or  quantity. 

MAN'GA-NESE.  A  metal  of  a  whitish  gray 
color. 

MAR/ROW.  [Sax.]  A  soft,  oleaginous  sub- 
stance contained  in  the  cavities  of  bones. 

MAS-SF/TER.  [Gr.  ju.ao-o-aoju.at,  massanmai, 
to  chew.]  The  name  of  a  muscle  of  the 
face. 

MAS/TI-CATE,  MAS-TI-CA'TION.  [L.  mastico.] 
To  chew ;  the  act  of  chewing. 

MAS/TOID.  [Gr.  jmaoro?,  mastos,  breast,  and 
eiSo?,  etidos,  form.]  The  name  of  a  pro- 
cess of  the  temporal  bone  behind  the  ear. 

MAB-TOII/E-US.  A  name  applied  to  muscles 
that  are  attached  to  the  mastoid  process. 

MAX-U/LA.    [L.]    The  jaw-bone. 


MAX'I-MUS,  -UM.  [L.,  superlative  of  mag- 
nus,  great.]  A  term  applied  to  several 
muscles. 

ME-A^TUS.  [L.  meo,  to  go.]  A  passage  or 
channel. 

ME-DI-AS-TI'NUM.  A  membrane  that  sepa- 
rates the  chest  into  two  parts. 

ME/DI-UM,  -A.  [L.]  The  space  or  substance 
through  which  a  body  passes  to  any 
point. 

MED/UL-LA-RY.  [L.  medulla,  marrow.]  Per- 
taining to  marrow. 

ME-DTTI/LA  OB-LON-GA^TA.  Commencement 
of  the  spinal  cord. 

ME-DUI/LA  SPI-NA/LIS.    The  spinal  cord. 

MEM'BRA-NA.  A  membrane ;  a  thin,  white, 
flexible  skin  formed  by  fibres  interwoven 
like  network. 

MES/EN-TER-Y.  [Gr.  ju.eo-09,  mesos,  the  middle, 
and  evTepov,  enteron,  the  intestine.]  The 
membrane  in  the  middle  of  the  intes- 
tines by  which  they  are  attached  to  the 
spine. 

MET-A-CAR/PUS.  [Gr.  /xera,  meta,  after,  and 
Kaprros,  karpos,  wrist.]  The  part  of  the 
hand  between  the  wrist  and  fingers. 

MET-A-TAR/SUS.  [Gr.  ft-era,  meta,  after,  and 
rapo-05,  torsos,  the  tarsus.]  The  instep. 
A  term  applied  to  seven  bones  of  the 
foot. 

MID/RIFF.  [Sax.  mid,  and  hrife,  the  belly.] 
See  DIAPHRAGM. 

MIN^I-MUS.  [L.]  The  smallest.  A  term 
applied  to  several  muscles. 

MI/NOR.  [L.]  Less,  smaller.  A  term  ap- 
plied to  several  muscles. 

MISTRAL.  [L.  mitra,  a  mitre.]  The  name 
of  the  valves  on  the  left  side  of  the  heart. 

MO-DI'O-LUS.  [L.  modus,  a  measure.]  A 
cone  in  the  cochlea  around  which  the 
membranes  wind. 

MO/LAR.  [L.  mola,  a  mill.]  The  name  of 
some  of  the  large  teeth. 

MOI/LIS.    [L.]    Soft. 

MO'TOR,  -ES.  [L.  moveo,  to  move.]  A  mover. 
A  term  applied  to  certain  nerves. 

Mo^cous.    Pertaining  to  mucus. 

Mu/cus.  A  viscid  fluid  secreted  by  the 
mucous  membrane,  which  it  serves  to 
moisten  and  defend. 

MUSCLE.  A  bundle  of  fibres  enclosed  in  « 
sheath. 

MY-O/DES.  A  term  applied  to  certain 
muscles  of  the  neck. 


GLOSS  AKY. 


313 


MY-O-LEM'MA.  [Gr.  jxvs,  mus,  a  muscle,  and 
Ae/j./xa,  lemma,  to  receive.]  The  invest- 
ing membrane  of  a  fibre. 

MY-OI/O-GY.  [Gr.  /itu?,  mws,  a  muscle,  and 
Aoyos,  &#»«,  a  discourse.]  A  description 
of  the  muscles. 

NA/SAL.    Relating  to  the  nose. 

NERVE.  An  organ  of  sensation  and  motion 
in  animals. 

NERV'OUS  CEN/TRE.  A  collection  of  gray 
nervous  matter,  which  receives  impres- 
sions and  originates  the  nervous  im- 
pulses. 

NEC-RI-LEM'A.  [Gr.  vevpov,  neuron,  a  nerve, 
and  Ae/x/ua,  lemma,  a  sheath.]  The  sheath 
or  covering  of  a  nerve. 

NEU-ROI/O-GY.  [Gr.  vevpov,  neuron,  a  nerve, 
and  Aoyos,  logos,  a  discourse.]  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  nerves  of  the  body. 

NVTRO-GEN.  That  element  of  the  air  which 
is  called  azote. 

NU'CLE-US.  [L.  nux,  a  nut.]  The  central 
part  of  any  body,  or  that  about  which 
matter  is  collected. 

ND-TRI/TION.  The  art  or  process  of  pro- 
moting the  growth  or  repairing  the 
waste  of  the  system. 

OC/CI-PUT.    [L.  ob,  and  caput,  the  head.] 

The  hinder  part  of  the  head. 
OC'O-LUS,  -i.    [L.]    The  eye. 
<E-SOPH'A-GCS.    [Gr.  oua,  oid,  to  carry,  and 

</)uyoj,  phoffo,  to  eat.]    The  name  of  the 

passage  through  which  the  food  passes 

from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach. 
Q-LEC/RA-NOX.    [Gr.  u\eve,  olene,  the  cubit, 

and    Kpavov,   kranon,  the    head.]     The 

elbow ;  the  head  of  the  ulna. 
Oft.E-iN.    An  oily  substance  which  is  fluid 

at  ordinary  temperatures. 
OL-FACT/O-RY.    [L.  oleo,  to  smell,  and  facto, 

to  make.]    Pertaining  to  smelling. 
O-MEN/TUM.    [L.]    The  caul. 
0/MO.      [Gr.   w/xos,    omos,  the    shoulder.] 

The  name  of  muscles  attached  to  the 

shoulder. 
OPH-THAI/MIC.     [Gr.  o^daXjmo?,  ophlhalmos, 

the  eye.]    Belonging  to  the  eye. 
OP-PO/NENS.    That  which  acts  in  opposition 

to  something.    The  mime  of  two  muscles 

of  the  hand. 
OP'TI-CCS,  OP'TIC.    [Gr.   oirropat,   opt-tmai, 

to  see.]     Relating  to  the  eye. 

27  0 


OR-BIC/C-LAR.    [L.  orbis,  a  circle.]   Circular. 

OR/CAN.  A  part  of  the  system  destined  to 
exercise  some  particular  function. 

OR/I-GIN.    Commencement;  source. 

Os.    [L.]    A  bone ;  the  month  of  anything. 

OS/MA-ZOME.  [Gr.  OO-/U.TJ,  osme,  smell,  and 
£ci>j£ot,  zomos,  broth.]  A  principle  ob- 
tained from  animal  fibre  which  gives  the 
peculiar  taste  to  broth. 

OS/SE-OUS.     Pertaining  to  bones. 

OS/SI-FY.  [L.  ossa,  bones,  and  facin,  to 
make.]  To  convert  into  bone. 

OS/TE-INB.  [Gr.  o<rreov,  osteon,  a  bone.] 
The  albuminous  ingredient  of  the  bones. 

OS-TE-OI/O-GY.  [Gr.  oa-reov,  tisteoti,  a  bone, 
and  Aoyos,  logos,  a  discourse.]  The  part 
of  anatomy  which  treats  of  bones. 

O-VA/LE.    [L.J    The  shape  of  an  egg. 

OX-AI/IC.  Pertaining  to  sorrel.  Oxalic  acid 
is  the  acid  of  sorrel.  It  is  composed  of 
two  equivalents  of  carbon  and  three  of 
oxygen. 

OX'Y-GEN.  A  permanently  elastic  fluid,  in- 
visible and  inodorous.  One  of  the  com- 
ponents of  atmospheric  air. 

PA-LA/TUM.  [L.j  The  palate;  the  roof  of 
the  mouth. 

PAL-PE-BRA'RUM.  [L.  palpebra,  the  eyelid.] 
Of  the  eyelids. 

PAI/MAR.  [L.  palma,  the  palm.]  Belong- 
ing to  the  hand. 

PAL-MA/RIS.  A  term  applied  to  some  muscles 
attached  to  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

PAN'CRE-AS.  [Gr.  vav,  pan,  all,  and  xpeac, 
Areas,  flesh.]  The  name  of  one  of  the 
digestive  organs. 

PAN-CRE-A/TIN.  The  albuminous  ingredient 
of  the  pancreas. 

PA-PII/LA,  -x.  [L.]  Small  conical  promi- 
nences. 

PA-RAI/Y-SIS.  Abolition  of  function,  whether 
of  intellect,  sensation  or  motion. 

PA-REN/CHY-MA.  [Gr.  wapeyxew,  parengcheo, 
to  pour  through.]  The  substance  con- 
tained between  the  blood-vessels  of  an 
organ. 

PA-RI/E-TAL.  [L.  paries,  a  wall.]  A  bone 
of  the  skull. 

PA-ROT/ID.  [Gr.  irapa,  para,  near,  and 
WTO?,  o!os,  the  gen.  of  ovs,  ous,  ear,  the 
ear.]  The  name  of  the  largest  salivary 
gland. 

PA-TEL/LA,  -M.    [L.]    The  knee-pan. 


314 


GLOSSAEY. 


PA-THET/I-CTJS,  -ci.  [Gr.  iraflos,  pathos, 
passion.]  The  name  of  the  fourth  pair 
of  nerves. 

PEC/TO-RAL.    [L.]    Pertaining  to  the  chest. 
PI/DIS.    [L.,  gen.  of  pes,  the  foot.]    Of  the 
foot. 

PEI/I-TONGS.  A  term  applied  to  masses 
of  fat. 

PEI/U-CLE.  [L.,  dim.  of  pellus,  the  skin.] 
A  thin  skin  or  film. 

PEI/VIS.  [L.]  The  basin  formed  by  the 
large  bones  at  the  lower  part  of  the  ab- 
domen. 

PENfai-FORM.  [L.  penna,  a  feather.]  Hav- 
ing the  form  of  a  feather  or  quill. 

PEP'SIN.  [Gr.  irenrw,  pepto,  to  cook.]  An 
ingredient  of  the  gastric  juice,  which 
acts  as  a  ferment  in  the  digestion  of  the 
food. 

PER-I-CAR/DI-UM.  [Gr.  irepi,  peri,  around, 
and  KdpSia,  kardia,  the  heart.]  A  mem- 
brane that  encloses  the  heart. 

PER-I-CHON/DRI-TJM.  [Gr.  irepi,  peri,  around, 
and  x°"Sp°s>  chondros,  cartilage.]  A 
membrane  that  invests  cartilage. 

PER-I-CRA/NI-UM.  [Gr.  irepi,  peri,  around, 
and  Kpaviov,  Jcranion,  the  cranium.]  A 
membrane  that  invests  the  skull. 

PER-I-MYS/I-UM.  [Gr.  irepi,  peri,  around, 
and  /M.US,  mus,  a  muscle.]  The  investing 
membrane  of  a  muscle. 

PER-I-STAI/TIC.  [Gr.  irepioreAAw,  peristelW, 
to  involve.]  A  movement  like  the  crawl- 
ing of  a  worm. 

PER-I-TO-NI/UM.  [Gr.  irepi,  peri,  around, 
and  reiveiv,  teinein,  to  stretch.]  A  thin, 
serous  membrane  investing  the  internal 
surface  of  the  abdomen. 

PER/MA-NEXT.    Durable;  lasting. 

PER-SPI-RA'TION.  [L.  per,  through,  and 
Sfn.ro,  to  breathe.]  The  excretion  from 
the  skin. 

PHAI/ANX,  -QES.  [Gr.  <}>a.\ayt,  phalanx,  an 
army.]  Three  rows  of  small  bones  form- 
ing the  fingers  or  toes. 

PHA-LANfai-Al.  Belonging  to  the  fingers 
or  toes. 

PHA-RYN'GE-AL.    Relating  to  the  pharynx. 

PHAR/YNX.  [Gr.  <J>apvyf,  pharunx.']  The 
upper  part  of  the  oesophagus. 

PHOS/PHOR-US.  [Gr.  <J>w?,  phos,  the  light, 
and  <J>epw,  phero,  to  bear.]  A  combustible 
substance,  of  a  yellowish  color,  semi- 
transparent,  resembling  wax. 


PHRENIC.  [Gr.  ^prjv,  phren,  the  mind.] 
Belonging  to  the  diaphragm. 

PHYS-I-OI/O-GY.  [Gr.  <£v<ris,  phusis,  nature, 
and  Aoyo?,  logos,  a  discourse.]  The  science 
of  the  functions  of  the  organs  of  animals 
and  plants. 

PtfA  MASTER.  [L.,  good  mother.]  The 
name  of  one  of  the  membranes  of  the 
brain. 

PIG-MEN'TUM  NtfGRUM.  [L.]  Black  paint ; 
a  preparation  of  colors. 

PmteA.  [L.,  a  wing.]  A  part  cf  the  ex- 
ternal ear. 

PLA-TYS/MA.  [Gr.  irXaru?,  plains,  broad.] 
A  muscle  of  the  neck. 

PLEURA,  -M.  [Gr.  irXevpa,  pleura,  the  side.] 
A  thin  membrane  that  covers  the  inside 
of  the  thorax,  and  also  forms  the  exterior 
coat  of  the  lungs. 

PLEU'RAL.    Relating  to  the  pleura. 

PLEX'US.  [L.  plecto,  to  weave  together.] 
Any  union  of  nerves,  vessels  or  fibres,  in 
the  form  of  network. 

PNEtr-MO-GAs'TRic.  [Gr.  irvevpup,  pneumon, 
the  lungs,  and  yeumjp,  gaster,  the  stom- 
ach.] Belonging  to  both  the  stomach 
and  lungs. 

PNEU-MO-NOI/O-GY.  [Gr.  irveu/nwv,  pneumon, 
the  lungs,  and  Aoyo?,  logos,  a  discourse.] 
A  description  of  the  lungs. 

PoiAi-cis.  [L.]  A  term  applied  to  muscles 
attached  to  the  fingers  and  toes. 

PONS.  [L.]  A  bridge.  Pans  varolii,  a  part 
of  the  brain  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
crura  cerebri  and  cerebelli. 

POP-LIT-E/AL.  [L,  poples,  the  ham.]  Per- 
taining to  the  ham  or  knoe-joint.  A 
name  given  to  various  parts. 

POS'TI-CUS.  [L.]  Behind;  posterior.  A 
term  applied  to  certain  muscles. 

POR/TI-O  DU'RA.  [L.,  hard  portion.]  The 
facial  nerve ;  eighth  pair. 

POR/TI-O  MoiAis.  [L.,  soft  portion.]  The 
auditory  nerve;  seventh  pair. 

PO-TAS'SI-UM.  [L.J  The  metallic  basis  of 
pure  potash. 

PRO-BOS^CIS.  [Gr.  irpo,  pro,  before,  and 
/SOCTACW,  bosko,  to  feed.]  The  snout  or 
trunk  of  an  elephant  or  other  animal. 

PROC/ESS.     A  prominence  or  projection. 

PRO-NA^TOR.  [L.  pronus,  turned  down- 
ward.] The  muscle  of  the  forearm  that 
moves  the  palm  of  the  hani  down« 
ward. 


GLOSSARY. 


315 


[Or.  irparos,  protos,  first, 
and  7rAao>ia,  plasma,  formed.]  The  for- 
mal basis  of  all  living  bodies. 

PSO'AS.  [Or.  tyoai,  psoai,  the  loins.]  The 
name  of  two  muscles  of  the  leg. 

PUL-MON/IO,      1 

PUI/MO-NA-RY,  >    [L.  pulmo,  the  lungs.] 

PUL-MO-NA'LIS.  J 
Belonging  or  relating  to  the  lungs. 

PU'PIL.  A  little  aperture  in  the  centre  of 
the  iris,  through  which  the  rays  of  light 
pass  to  the  retina. 

PT-LOR/IC.    Pertaining  to  the  pylorus. 

PY-LO'ROS.  [Gr.  TrvAwpos,  puloros,  a  gate- 
keeper.] The  lower  orifice  of  the  stom- 
ach, with  which  the  duodenum  connects. 

RA/DI-TJS.  [L.,  a  ray,  a  spoke  of  a  wheel.] 
The  name  of  one  of  the  bones  of  the 
forearm. 

RA/DI-ATE.  Having  lines  or  fibres  that 
diverge  from  a  point. 

RA/MUS.  [L.]  A  branch.  A  term  applied 
to  the  projections  of  bones. 

REC-RE-MEN-TtfTiAi.  [L.  re,  again,  and 
cemo,  to  secrete.]  Consisting  of  super- 
fluous matter  separated  from  that  which 
is  valuable. 

REC/TTJM.  The  third  and  last  portion  of  the 
intestines. 

REC^TUS,  -r.  [L.]  Straight;  erect.  A  term 
applied  to  several  muscles. 

REG/I-MKN.  [L.  rego,  to  govern.]  The  sys- 
tematic regulation  of  the  food  and  drink. 

RE-siDto-UM.  [L.]  Waste  matter.  The 
faeces. 

RES-PI-RA/TION.  [L.  re,  again,  and  spiro, 
to  breathe.]  The  act  of  breathing.  In- 
spinng  air  into  the  lungs  and  expelling 
it  again. 

RE-SPiteA-TO-Rr.  Pertaining  to  respiration ; 
serving  ftr  respiration. 

RET'I-NA.  fL.  reft,  a  net.]  The  essential 
organ  of  sight.  One  of  the  coats  of  the 
eye,  formed  by  the  expansion  of  the 
optic  nerve. 

RO-TUN'DUM,  -A.    [L.]    Round;  circular. 

RC'GA,  -x.    [L.]    A  wrinkle  ;  a  fold. 

BAC'CU-LUS.    [L.,  dim.  of  saccus,  a  bag.]    A 

little  sac. 

SA'CRAL.    Pertaining  to  the  sacrum. 
SA'CRUM.    [L.,  sacred.]    The  bone  which 

forms  the  posterior  part  of  the  pelvis, 


and  is  a  continuation  of  the  spinal 
column. 

SA-LI/VA.  [L.]  The  fluid  which  is  secreted 
by  the  salivary  glands,  which  moistens 
the  food  and  mouth. 

SAN^QUIN-E-OUS.  [L.  sanguis,  the  blood.] 
Bloody;  abounding  with  blood;  ple- 
thoric. 

SAR-TO'RI-TTS.  [L.  sartor,  a  tailor.]  A  te/m 
applied  to  a  muscle  of  the  thigh. 

SCA^A,  -J3.  [L.,  a  ladder.]  Cavities  of  the 
cochlea. 

SCA-LE/NUS.  [Gr.  <ncaAiji>os,  skalenos,  un- 
equal.] A  term  applied  to  some  muscles 
of  the  neck. 

SCAPHOID.  [Gr.  triccufn),  skaphe',  a  little 
boat.]  The  name  applied  to  one  of  the 
wrist-bones. 

ScAPto-LA.    [L.]    The  shoulder-blade. 

SCAP^U-LAR.    Relating  to  the  scapula. 

SCI-AT/IC.  [Gr.,  pertaining  to  the  loins.] 
The  name  of  the  large  nerve  of  the  loins 
and  leg. 

SCLE-ROT/IC.  [Gr.  {neArjpo?,  skleros,  hard.] 
A  membrane  of  the  eye. 

SE-BA/CEOTJS.  [L.  sebum,  tallow.]  Pertain- 
ing to  fat ;  unctuous  matter. 

SE-CRE'TION.  The  act  of  producing  from 
the  blood  substances  different  from  the 
blood  itself,  as  bile,  saliva;  the  matter 
secreted,  as  mucus,  bile,  etc. 

SE-CRE^TO-RY.  Performing  the  office  of  se- 
cretion. 

SE-CUN/DTTS.  Second.  A  term  applied  to 
certain  muscles. 

SEM-I-CIR'CU-LAR.  Having  the  form  of  a 
half  circle.  The  name  of  a  part  of  the 
ear. 

SEM-I-LTJ'NAR  VALVES.  [L.  semi,  half,  and 
luna,  the  moon.]  Name  of  the  three 
festooned  valves  of  the  heart,  at  tha 
entrance  of  the  great  arteries. 

SEM-I-TEN-DI-NC/SUS.  [L.  semi,  half,  and 
tendo,  a  tendon.]  The  name  of  a  muscle. 

SEP/TUM.  [L.]  A  membrane  that  divides 
two  cavities  from  each  other. 

SE/ROUS.  Thin;  watery.  Pertaining  to 
serum. 

SB/RUM.  [L.]  The  thin,  transparent  part 
of  blood. 

SER-RA/TUS.  [L.  serro,  to  saw.]  A  term 
applied  to  some  muscles  of  the  trunk. 

SIG^MOID.  [Gr.]  Resembling  the  Greek  t, 
Sigma. 


316 


GLOSSAKY. 


SI-LI'CI-UM.    A  term  applied  to  one  of  the 

earths. 
SI/NUS.    [L.,  a  bay.]    A  cavity,  the  interior 

of  which  is  more  expanded  than  the 

entrance. 
BKEI/E-TON.     [Gr.  or/ceAAw,  skello,  to  dry.] 

The  aggregate  of  the  hard  parts  of  the 

body ;  the  bones. 

SO/DI-CM.    The  metallic  base  of  soda. 
SPHI/NOID.    [Gr.  <r<f>rjv,  sphen,  a  wedge,  and 

eiSos,  eidos,   likeness.]     A  bone  at  the 

base  of  the  skull. 

Si'iiiNc'TER.    [Gr.  a-<f»iyy(a,  sphingo,  to  re- 
strict.]   A  muscle  that  contracts  or  shuts 

an  orifice. 

SPI'NAI  CORD.  A  prolongation  of  the  brain. 
SPINE.    A  thorn.    The  vertebral  column; 

back-bone. 
SPLANCH-NOI/O-GT.  [Gr.  «nr\ayxvov,  splanch- 

non,  the  bowels,  and  Aoyos,  logos,  a  dis- 
course.]   A  description  of  the  internal 

parts  of  the  body. 
SPLEEN.    The  milt.    It  is  situated  in  the 

abdomen  and  attached  to  the  stomach. 
8PLI/NI-08.    The  name  of  a  muscle  of  the 

neck. 

SQUA/MOSE.    [L.]    Scaly. 
STAGES.     The  name  of  one  of  the  small 

bones  of  the  ear. 
STE/AR-IN.    [Gr.  oreop,  stear,  suet.]    One  of 

the  prolate  principles  of  animal  fat, 

which  i»  voZt'd  at  ordinary  temperatures. 
STER/NCM.    The  breast-bone. 
STOM/ACH      The    principal    organ   of   the 

digestif  apparatus. 
STRA/TUK.    [L.  sterno,  to  spread.]    A  bed ; 

a  layer. 
STY/LOID.    [L.  stylus,  a  pencil.]    An  epithet 

applied    to   processes    that   resemble  a 

style,  a  pen. 
SUB-CLA^VI-AN.    [L.  sub,  under,  and  clavis, 

a  key.]    Situated  under  the  clavicle. 
SUB-UNEQUAL.    [L.  sub,  under,  and  lingua, 

the  tongue.]  Situated  under  the  tongue. 
SUB-MAX'IL-LA-RY.      [L.   sub,    under,    and 

maxilla,  the  jaw-bone.]    Located  under 

the  jaw. 
SUI/PHUR.      A  simple  mineral  substance, 

of  a  yellow  color,  brittle,  insoluble  in 

water,  l»ut  fusible  by  heat. 
SU-PI-NA'TOR.    [L.]    A  muscle  that  turns 

the  paJaa  of  the  hand  upward. 
SUBURB.    [L.  suo,  to  sew.]    The  seam  or 

joint  that  ucites  the  bones  of  the  skull. 


SYN-AR-THRO^SIS.  [Gr.  ovv,  sun,  with,  and 
apQpov,  arthron,  a  joint.]  An  immovable 
articulation. 

SYN-O/VI-A.  [Gr.  <rvv,  sttn,  with,  and  wov, 
oon,  an  egg.]  The  fluid  secreted  into  the 
cavities  of  joints  for  the  purpose  of  lubri- 
cating them. 

SYSTEM.  An  assemblage  of  organs,  com- 
posed of  the  same  tissues  and  intended 
for  the  same  functions. 

SYS-TEM'IC.  Belonging  to  the  general  sys- 
tem. 

SYS/TO-LE.  [Gr.  ffvoreAAw,  sustello,  to  con- 
tract.] The  contraction  of  the  heart  and 
arteries  for  expelling  the  blood  and 
carrying  on  the  circulation. 

TAR/SUS.    [L.]     The  posterior  part  of  the 

foot. 
TEN/DON.    [Gr.  reivu,  teino,  to  stretch.]    A 

hard,  insensible  cord,  or  bundle  of  fibres, 

by  which  a  muscle  is  attached  to  a  bone. 
TENS/OR.    A  muscle  that  extends  a  part. 
TEN-TAC'O-LA,  -M.    [L.  tento,  to  seize.]    A 

filiform  process  or  organ  on  the  bodies 

of  various  animals. 
TEN-TOftu-UM.     [L.  tendo,  to  stretch.]     A 

process  of  the  dura  mater  which  lies  be- 
tween the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum. 
TI/RES.   [L.  feres,  round.]   An  epithet  given 

to  many  organs,  the  fibres  of  which  are 

collected  in  small  bundles. 
THO/RAX.    [Gr.]    That  part  of  the  skeleton 

that  composes  the  bones  of  the  chest. 

The  cavity  of  the  chest. 
THO-RAC'IC.    Relating  to  the  chest. 
THY/ROID.    [Gr.  Ovpeos,  thureos,  a  shield.] 

Resembling  a  shield.    A  cartilage  of  the 

larynx. 
TIB/J-A.    [L.,  a  flute.]    The  large  bone  of 

the  leg. 
TIS/SUE.    The  texture  or  organization  of 

parts. 
TON/SII..     [L.]     A  glandular  body  in  the 

throat  or  fauces. 
TRA^CHE-A.    [Gr.  rpa^vs,  tracfius,  rough.] 

The  windpipe. 
TRANS-VERSED  TRANS- VER-SA'LIS.    Lying  in 

a  cross  direction. 
TRA-PE^ZI-US.    The  name  of  a  muscle,  so 

called  from  its  form. 
TRICEPS.    [L.  tres,  three,  and  caput,  head.] 

Three.    A  name  given  to  muscles  that 

have  three  attachments  at  one  extremity. 


GLOSSARY. 


317 


TRI-CUS/PIB.  [L.  Ires,  three,  and  cuspis, 
point.]  The  triangular  valves  in  the 
right  side  of  the  heart. 

TRIT/U-RAT-ING.    Grinding  to  a  powder. 

TROCU/LE-A.  [Gr.  rpoxoAio,  trochalia,  a 
pulley.]  A  pulley-like  cartilage,  over 
which  the  tendon  of  a  muscle  of  the  eye 


TRUNK.  The  principal  part  of  the  body,  to 
which  the  limbs  are  articulated. 

TC'BER-CLE.  [L.  tuber,  a  bunch.]  A  pimple, 
swelling  or  tumor  on  animal  bodies. 

TTM'PAN-UM.    [L.]    The  middle  ear. 

UI/NA.    [L.]    A  bone  of  the  fore-arm. 

UI/NAR,  UL-NA^RIS.    Relating  to  the  ulna. 

U-RE/TER.  [Gr.  ovpeiv,  ourein,  to  conduct 
water.]  The  excretory  duct  of  the  kid- 
neys. 

U/RIC.  [Gr.  ovpov,  ouron,  urine.]  An  acid 
contained  in  urine  and  in  gouty  con- 
cretions. 

U-VE/A.  [L.  ttva,  a  grape.]  Resembling 
grapes.  A  thin  membrane  of  the  eye. 

U^vu-LA.  A  soft  body  suspended  from  the 
palate,  near  the  aperture  of  the  nostrils, 
over  the  glottis. 

VAC/CINE  VI/BUS.  [L.  vacca,  a  cow,  virut, 
poison.]  Pertaining  to  cows;  derived 
from  cows. 

VALVE.  Any  membrane,  or  doubling  of 
any  membrane,  which  prevents  fluids 
from  flowing  back  in  the  vessels  and 
canals  of  the  animal  body. 

VAS/CU-LAR.  [L.  vasculum,  a  vessel.]  Per- 
taining to  vessels;  abounding  in  ves- 
sels. 

27* 


VAS/TUS.     [L.]     Great,  vast.     Applied  to 

some  large  muscles. 
VEINS.    Vessels  that  convey  blood  to  the 

heart. 

VENOUS.    Pertaining  to  veins. 
VEN/TRI-CLE.    [L.  venter,  the  stomach.]    A 

small  cavity  of  the  animal  body. 
VER-MIC/C-LAR.      [L.   vermiculus,    a    little 

worm.]     Resembling  the  motions  of  a 

worm. 
VERM-I-FORM^IS.    [L.  vermis,  a  worm,  and 

forma,  form.]     Having   the   form  and 

shape  of  a  worm. 
VERI/E-BRA,  -x.  [L.  verto,  to  turn.]   A  joint 

of  the  spinal  column. 
VERT'E-BRAL.    Pertaining  to  the  joints  of 

the  spinal  column. 
VEJ/I-CLE.    [L.  vesica,  a  bladder.]    A  little 

bladder,  or  a  portion  of  the  cuticle  sepa- 
rated from  the  cutis  vena  and  filled  with 

serum. 
VES/TI-BUIB.     [L.]    A  porch  of  a  house. 

A  cavity  belonging  to  the  ear. 
VII/LI.  [L.]  Fine,  small  fibres. 
Vifous.  [L.,  poison.]  Foul  matter  of  an 

ulcer;  poison. 

VI/TAL.    [L.  vita,  life.]    Pertaining  to  life. 
VIT/RE-OUS.    [L.  vitrum,  glass.]    Belonging 

to  glass.  A  humor  of  the  eye. 
VO/LAR.  [L.  vola,  the  hollow  of  the  hand 

or  foot.]    Belonging  to  the  palm  of  the 


VO/MER.  [L.,  a  ploughshare.]  One  of  the 
bones  of  the  nose. 

ZTG-O-MAT/I-CUS.  [Gr.  £vyo?,  zugos,  a  yoke.] 
A  term  applied  to  some  muscles  of  the 
face,  from  their  attachment. 


INDEX. 


A.BSORBENTS,  Anatomy  of,  138 

Histology  of,  141. 

Chemistry  of,  143. 

Physiology  of,  144. 

Hygiene  of,  146. 
ABSORPTION,  138. 
ACIDS,  Cerebric,  33. 

Cholic,  33. 

Lactic,  32. 

Uric,  33. 

AIR,  197,  297,  303: 
AIR-CELLS,  187. 
ALBUMEN,  31. 
ALBUMINOIDS,  31. 
ALBUMINOSE,  31. 
ANGIOLOGY,  Comparative,  172. 
APONEUROSIS,  74. 
AORTA,  Thoracic,  152. 

Abdominal,  153. 
ARTERIES,  150-159. 
ARTICULATA,  Definition  of,  67. 
ASSIMILATION,  176. 
AURICLE,  of  the  Heart,  150. 
ASPHVXIA,  from  Drowning,  205. 

from  Electricity,  205. 

from  Hanging,  205. 

from  Carbonic  Acid  Gas,  206. 
AZOTE,  31. 

BATHING,  290,  294. 
BEDS,  Making  of,  302. 
BILE,  118. 

BlLVERDIN,  33. 

BLOOD,  149, 161. 
BLOOD-VESSELS,  81,  149. 
BONES,  Anatomy  of,  36. 

Histology  of,  49. 

Chemistry  of,  55. 

Physiology  of,  55. 

Hygiene  of,  60. 

Fractured,  64. 
BRAIN,  218. 
BRONCHI,  184-187. 


BURNS  AND  SCALDS,  297. 
BURSTS  Mucos.fi,  53. 

CANALICULI,  50. 
CANAL  OF  HAVERS,  50. 
CAPILLARIES,  22, 151, 160. 
CARBON,  34. 
CARTILAGE,  53,  59. 
CARTILAGEN,  32. 
CELLS,  Definition  of,  15. 
CELLULAR  TISSUE,  18. 
CEREBELLUM,  213. 
CEREBRO-SPINAL  Axis,  212. 
CEREBRUM,  215. 
CHEST,  Compression  of,  203. 
CHILBLAINS,  298. 
CHLORINE,  34. 
CHONDRIGEN,  32. 
CHYLE,  120. 
CHYME,  121. 
CIRCULATORY  ORGANS,  150. 

Histology  of,  156. 

Physiology  of,  162. 

Hygiene  of,  168. 
CLOTHING,  291. 
COCHLEA,  271. 

COMMISSURES  of  the  Brain,  212. 
CORNS,  Treatment  of,  298. 
CORPORA  AMYLACEA,  34. 
CORPUS  CALLOSUM,  216. 
CRUORIN,  32. 
CRYSTALLINE  LENS,  266. 
CUTIS  ANSERINA,  279. 
CUTICLE,  276. 
CUTIS  VERA,  276. 

DEFINITIONS,  GENERAL,  13. 

DERMIS,  276. 

DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  Anatomy  of,  105* 

Histology  of,  110. 

Chemistry  of,  116. 

Physiology  of,  120. 

Hygiene  of,  120. 


320 


INDEX. 


DISTINCTIONS  between  the  Mineral,  Vege- 
table and  Animal  Kingdoms,  11. 
between  Organized  and  Unorganized 

Bodies,  12. 

between  Animals  and  Plants,  12. 
DRINKS,  127. 
DROWNED  PERSONS,  Treatment  of,  205. 

EAR,  Bones  of,  273. 

External,  274. 

Middle,  272. 

Internal,  270. 

Physiology  of,  285 
ELASTIN,  33. 
ENDOCARDIUM,  157. 
EPIDERMIS,  274. 
EPIGLOTTIS,  184. 
EPITHELIUM,  25. 
EUSTACHIAN  TUBE,  273. 
EXCRETION,  179. 
EYE,  2(54,  282. 

Protecting  Organs  of,  268. 

FACE,  Bones  of,  38. 
FASCIA,  74. 
FASCICULI,  79. 
FATS,  33. 
FENESTRA,  272. 
FIBRE,  22. 
FIBRIN,  31. 
FIBRO-CARTILAOE,  20. 
FOOD,  Quantity  of,  123. 

Quality  of,  125. 

Manner  of  taking,  127. 

Conditions  when  taking,  128. 
FROST-BITE,  Treatment  of,  298. 

GANGLIA,  210. 
GANGLIONIC  COBPUSCLE,  24. 
OASTKIC  JUICE,  117. 
GELATIN,  32. 
GLANDS,  Lachrymal,  269. 

Lymphatic,  140-142. 

Oil,  279,  287. 

Perspiratory,  279,  287. 

Salivary,  107. 
GLOBULIN,  32, 
GLUCOSE,  33. 
GLYCERINE,  33. 

H.SMATIX,  32. 

HAIR-FOLLICLES,  278. 
HEART,  150. 

Auricles  of,  150,  157. 

Ventricles  of,  150,  158. 


HEARING,  Sense  of,  270. 

HEMORRHAGE,  Means  of  Arresting,  1«9 

HYDROGEN,  34. 

INOSIT,  33. 
INTESTINES,  108-114. 
INTESTINAL  JUICE,  119. 
IRIS,  265. 

JOINTS,  47. 

Physiology  of,  59. 

KERATIN,  33. 
KIDNEYS,  180. 

LABYRINTH,  270. 
LACHRYMAL  APPARATUS,  268. 
LACTEALS,  137. 
LACTIN,  33. 
LACUNA,  50,  69. 
LARYNX,  183-186, 195. 
LIGAMENT,  41,  54. 
LIGHT,  297. 
LIVER,  109-114. 
LUNGS,  185, 187. 
LYMPH,  137-143. 
LYMPHATICS,  140, 144. 

MARGARIN,  33. 

MEATUS  AUDITORIUS,  274. 

MEDULLA,  52. 

Oblongata,  212. 

Spinalis,  40. 
MEMBRANE,  Basement,  25. 

Cerebro-Spinal  System,  228. 

Gastro-Pulmonary,  28. 

Mucous,  28. 

Serous,  27. 

Synovial,  27,  53. 

Urinary,  28. 
MESENTERY,  116. 
MOLLUSCA,  Definition  of,  67. 
MOUTH,  Structure  of,  103, 110. 
Mucus,  116. 
MUSCLES,  Anatomy  of,  73. 

Histology  of,  79. 

Chemistry  of,  81. 

Physiology  of,  83. 

Hygiene  of,  89. 

Intercostal,  193. 

Striated,  80. 

Non-Striated,  80. 

Voluntary,  83. 
MUCIN,  32. 


INDEX. 


321 


MUSCULIN,  31. 

MTOCOMMA,  101. 

MYOLEMMA,  80. 

MTOLOGT,  Comparative,  98. 

NAILS,  280,  288. 
NASAL  DUCT,  269. 
NEURIN,  33. 
NERVE-CELLS,  225. 

"      CENTRES,  210,  230. 
NERVES,  81,  210. 

Cranial,  219. 

Cutaneous,  277. 

Spinal,  223. 

Sympathetic,  224. 
NERVOUS  SYSTEM,  Anatomy  of,  210. 

Histology  of,  225. 

Physiology  of,  229. 

Hygiene  of,  240. 
NEUROLOGY,  Comparative,  252. 

NlTROGKT,  31. 

NUCLEATED  CELL,  14. 
NURSE,  Duty  of,  199. 
NUTRITIVE  APPARATUS,  103. 

(ESOPHAGUS,  107, 112. 

OIL-GLANDS,  279. 

OLEIN,  33. 

OPTICI  THALAMI,  215. 

ORGANIZED  BODIES,  12. 

OSTEOLOGY,  Comparative,  67. 

OXYGEN,  34, 199. 

PAPILLAE,  262-276. 
PALATE,  110. 
PANCREAS,  109-112. 
PANCREATIC  JUICE,  119. 
PANCREATIN,  32. 
PAROTID  GLAND,  107. 
PATELLA,  46. 

PEDUNCLES,  of  the  Brain,  215. 
PELVIS,  42. 
PEPSIN,  32. 
PEPTONES,  32. 
PERICARDIUM,  150, 156. 
PERICHONDRIUM,  186. 
PERIMYSIUM,  80. 
PERIOSTEUM,  52,  60. 
PERITONEUM,  116. 
PERSPIRATION,  Uses  of,  287. 
PHARYNX,  107. 
PLEURA,  185, 188. 

PNEUMONOLOGY,  Comparative,  205. 
POISONS,  and  their  Antidotes,  303. 


PORTAL  VEIN,  141 . 

PROTOPLASM,  14. 

PROXIMATE  CONSTITUENTS,  Organic,  On. 

Inorganic,  30. 
PYRAMIDS  of  the  Brain,  213. 

RADIATA,  Definition  of,  67. 
RESPIRATORY  ORGANS,  Anatomy  of,  183. 

Histology  of,  186. 

Chemistry  of,  188. 

Physiology  of,  190. 

Hygiene  of,  197. 
RETINA,  266. 
ROOMS,  Ventilation  of,  198. 

Wnrming  of,  201. 

SACRUM,  43. 

SALIVA,  117. 

SALAVIN,  32. 

SCAPULA,  43. 

SECRETION,  178. 

SEMICIRCULAR  CANALS,  271. 

SICK  ROOM,  300. 

SKELETON,  36. 

SKIN,  274. 

SLEEP,  245. 

SLEEPING  ROOM,  199. 

SOUND,  285. 

SMELL,  Sense  of,  262. 

SPINAL  CORD,  212. 

COLUMN,  89. 

SPLANCHNOLOOT,  Comparative,  181. 
SPLEEN,  109, 115. 
STARCH,  34. 
STEARIN,  33. 
STOMACH,  107, 112. 
SWEAT  GLANDS,  279. 
SYNOVIA,  59. 

TARSUS,  47. 
TASTE,  Sense  of,  280. 
TEETH,  105,  111,  122. 
TENDONS,  81,  85. 
THORACIC  DUCT,  140. 
THORAX,  38. 
TISSUES,  Adipose,  21. 

Areolar,  18. 

Cartilaginous,  19. 

Connective,  17. 

Fibrous,  19. 

Muscular,  22. 

Nervous,  23. 

Sclerous,  21. 

Tubular,  22. 


322 


INDEX. 


TONGUE,  110,  261. 
TOUCH,  Sense  of,  274. 
TRACHEA,  184, 187. 
TYMPANUM,  272. 

ULTIMATE  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS,  34. 
ULNAR,  43. 

URINIFEROUS  TUBULES,  181. 
UVEA,  265. 

VAI  VES  of  the  Heart,  158. 

of  the  Veius,  159. 
VMNS,  154, 159. 


VEINS,  Portal,  155. 

Pulmonary,  155. 
VENTILATION.  201. 
VENTRICLES,  of  the  Heart,  160, 

of  tho  Brain,  216. 
VERTEBRA,  39. 

VERTEBRATA,  Definition  of,  67. 
VESTIBULE,  270. 
VILLI,  122. 
VOCAL  CORDS,  186. 
"      GROANS,  183. 

WATCHER,  Duty  of,  302. 


THE  END. 


KEY  TO   CUTTEK'S 

NEW  OUTLINE  ZOOLOGICAL  CHARTS, 


OB 


HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE  ANATOMICAL  PLATES. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

IN  using  these  charts,  we  would  suggest  that  the  pupil  carefully  examine 
the  illustrating  cuts  interspersed  with  the  text  in  connection  with  the  lesson 
to  be  recited.  The  similarity  between  these  and  the  charts  will  enable  the 
pupil  to  recite,  and  the  teacher  to  conduct  his  recitation  from  the  latter. 

Let  a  pupil  show  the  situation  of  an  organ,  or  part,  on  an  anatomical  out- 
line chart,  and  also  give  its  structure,  while  other  members  of  the  class  note 
all  omissions  and  misstatements.  Another  pupil  may  give  the  use  of  that 
organ,  and,  if  necessary,  others  may  give  an  extended  explanation.  The 
third  may  explain  the  laws  on  which  the  health  of  the  part  depends,  while 
other  members  of  the  class  may  supply  what  has  been  omitted.  After  thus 
presenting  the  subject  in  the  form  of  topics,  questions  may  be  proposed  pro- 
miscuously from  each  paragraph,  and  where  examples  occur  in  the  text  let 
other  analogous  ones  be  given. 

If  the  physiology  and  hygiene  of  a  given  subject  have  not  been  studied, 
confine  the  recitation  to  those  parts  only  on  which  the  pupil  is  prepared. 
When  practicable,  the  three  departments  should  be  united;  but  this  can  only 
be  done  when  the  chapter  on  the  hygiene  has  been  learned,  while  the  physi- 
ology can  be  united  with  the  anatomy  in  all  chapters  upon  physiology. 

CHART  No.  1. 
OSSEOUS  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Bones  of  the  Human  Body. — 1,  The  frontal  bone.  2,  The  superior  max- 
illary (upper  jaw-bone).  3,  The  inferior  maxillary  (lower  jaw-bone).  4, 
The  cervical  vertebrae  (bones  of  the  neck).  5,  The  dorsal  vertebrae  (bones 
of  the  back).  6,  The  lumbar  vertebrae  (bones  of  the  loins).  7,  The  sacrum 
(the  basis  of  the  spinal  column).  8,  The  temporal  bone.  9,  The  scapula 
(shoulder-blade).  10, 10, 10,  The  ribs.  11,  11,  The  innominata  (hip-bones). 
12,  The  humerus  (arm-bone).  13,  The  radius.  14,  The  ulna  (bones  of  the 
fore-arm).  15,  The  carpus  (wrist-bones).  16,  16,  The  metacarpus  (bones  of 

i 


ii         KEY  TO   NEW   OUTLINE   ZOOLOGICAL   CHARTS. 

the  palm  of  the  hand).  17, 17,  The  phalanges  (finger-bones).  18,  The  femur 
(thigh-bone).  19,  The  patella  (knee-pan).  20,  The  tibia.  21,  The  fibula 
(bones  of  the  leg).  22,  The  tarsus  (bones  of  the  instep).  23,  23,  The  meta- 
tarsus (bones  of  the  middle  of  the  foot).  24,  24,  The  phalanges  (toe-bones). 
25,  Ligaments  of  the  shoulder.  26,  Ligaments  of  the  elbow.  27,  Ligaments 
of  the  wrist.  28,  Ligaments  of  the  hip-joint.  29,  Ligaments  of  the  knee. 
30,  Interosseous  membrane.  31,  Ligaments  of  the  ankle.  32,  The  clavicle 
(collar-bone).  33,  The  sternum  (breast-bone). 

B.  Bones  of  the  Cow. — 1,  The  frontal  bone.     2,  The  upper  jaw  (superior 
maxillary).     3,  The  lower  jaw  (inferior  maxillary).     4,  The  cervical  vertebne 
(bones  of  the  neck).     5,  The  dorsal  vertebrae  (bones  of  the  back).     6,  7,  The 
lumbar  vertebrae.     11,  The  sacral  vertebrae.     8,  The  caudal  vertebras.     9,  The 
scapula.     10,  10,  The  ribs.     12,  The  humerus.     13,  14,  The  radius  and  ulna. 

15,  The  carpus.     16,  The  metacarpus.     17,  The  phalanges.     18,  The  femur. 
20,  The  tibia.     22,  The  tarsus.     23,  The  metatarsus.     24,  The  phalanges. 

C.  Bones  of  the  Bird. — 1,  The   head.     2,  The    superior   mandible  (upper 
jaw).     3,  The  inferior  mandible  (lower  jaw).     4,  The  cervical  vertebrae.     5, 
The  dorsal  vertebrae.     8,  The  lumbar  and  sacral  vertebras.     9,  The  scapula. 
10,  The  ribs.     11,  The  sacrum.     12,  The  humerus.     13,  14,  The  radius  and 
ulna.     15,  The   carpus.     16,  The  metacarpus.     17,  17,  Phalanges.     18,  The 
femur.     20, 21,  The  tibia  and  fibula.     22,  23,  The  tarsus  and  metatarsus.     24, 
Phalanges.     32,  The   coracoid  bone.     33,  The   clavicle  (furcula).     34,  The 
sternum. 

D.  Bones  of  the  Tortoise. — 1,  The  head.     4,  The  cervical  vertebrae.     5,  5, 
The  dorsal  vertebrae  and  marginal  plates.     6,  6,  The  lumbar  vertebrae  and 
connecting  riba.     7,  11,  The  sacral  bones.     8,  The  caudal  vertebras,     9,  The 
scapula.     12,  The  humerus.     13,  14,  The  radius  and  ulna.     15,  The  carpus. 

16,  17,  Phalanges.     18,  The   femur.     20,  21,  The   tibia   and   fibula.     22,  23, 
The  tarsus  and  metatarsus.     24,  Phalanges.     32,  The  clavicle.     33,  The  cor- 
acoid bone. 

E.  Bones  of  the  Fish. — 1,  The  bones  of  the  head.     2,  The  upper  jaw.     3, 
The  lower  jaw.    4,  5,  6,  The  dorsal  and  caudal  vertebrae.     8,  The  first  dorsal 
fin.     9,  The  second  dorsal  fin.     10,  One  of  the  ventral  fins  that  corresponds  to 
the  legs.     12,  A  pectoral  fin  which  is  analogous  to  arras.     18,  A  ventral  fin. 

F.  Diagram  of  an  Annulosa. — 1,  The  vascular  (blood-vessel)  system.     2, 
The  digestive  system.     3,  3,  The  ganglia  (nervous)  system.     4,  4,  A  series  of 
rings  of  hardened  skin  which  forms  an  external  skeleton. 

G.  Diagram  of  a  Mollusca. — 1,  The  digestive  canal.     2,  The  heart.     3,  4, 
5,  Ganglia  (knots  of  nervous  matter). 

H.  Diagram  of  a  Radiata. — The  star-fish.     1,  Central  aperture. 

CHART  No.  2. 
MUSCULAR  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Muscles  of  Human  Body. — 1,  The  occipito-frontalis.     2,  The  orbicularis 
palpebrarum.     3,  The  levator  labii  superioris.    4,  The  zygomaticus.     5,  The 


KEY   TO   NEW   OUTLINE   ZOOLOGICAL   CHARTS.         Ill 

masseter.  6,  The  orbicularis  oris.  7,  The  temporal.  8,  The  levator  anguli- 
oris.  9,  The  depressor  labii  inferioris.  10,  10,  The  deltoid.  11,  11,  The 
pectoralis  major.  13,  The  supinator  radii  longus.  14,  The  flexor  carpi  ulna- 
ris.  15,  The  flexor  digitorium.  16,  The  rectus  abdominalis.  17,  The  sarto- 
rius.  18,  The  adductor  longus.  19,  The  rectus  femoris.  20,  The  vastus 
externus.  21,  The  vastus  internus.  22,  The  tendon  patella.  23,  The  gas- 
trocnemius.  24,  The  tibialis  anticus.  25,  The  extensor  iongus  digitorium. 
26,  The  short  extensor  muscles  of  the  toes.  27,  The  adductor  muscle  of  the 
great  toe.  28,  The  serratus  magnus  anticus.  29,  29,  Thepsoas  magnus.  30, 
The  inguinal  ring.  31,  31,  31,  31,  31,  31,  31,  31,  The  tendons  of  the  wrist 
and  fingers.  32,  The  sterno-hyoideus.  ,  33,  The  sterno-cleido-mastoideus. 
34,  The  biceps.  35,  The  triceps  muscle. 

B.  Muscles  of  the  Cow. — 1,  The  oecipito-frontalis.     2,  The  orbicularis  pal- 
pebrarum.     3,  The   masseter.     4,  The  levator  labii  superioris  nasi.     5,  The 
digastricus.     7,  The  trapezius.     10,  The  latissimus  dorsi.     11,  The  pectoralis. 
16,  17,  The  external  and  internal  oblique  muscle.     18,  The  opening  of  the 
mammary  artery  and  vein  (milk-veins).     19,  The  rectus  femoris.     20,  20,  20, 
The  gluteii  muscles. 

C.  Muscles  of  the  Bird.— I,  The  oecipito-frontalis.     2,  The  orbicularis  pal- 
pebrarum.     5,  The  masseter.     7,  The  temporal.     10,  The  deltoid.     11,  The 
pectoralis.     13,  The  levator  caudae.     14,  The  extensor  metacarpi  radialis  lon- 
gus.    19,  The  reotus  femoris.     20,  The  gluteii.     23,  The  gastrocnemius.     24, 
The  extensor  longus  digitorium.     33,  The  sterno-cleido-mastoideus.     34,  The 
biceps  muscle. 

D.  Muscles  of  the  Tortoise.— I,  The  digastricus.     10, 10,  The  deltoides.     14, 
The  ulnaris  internus.     18,  The   sartorius.     23,  24,  The  gastrocnemius.     28, 
The  serratus  magnus.     31,  32,  The  flexores  digitorium.   34,  The  biceps  bra- 
chialis.    35,  The  triceps  brachialis  muscle. 

E.  Muscles  of  the  Fish. — 1,  2,  3,  and  a,  b,  c,  represent  the  zigzag  arrange- 
ment of  the  muscles  of  the  fish  (myocomma). 

F.  Diagram  of  an  Insect. — 1,  The  head.     2,  The  first  segment  of  the  chest, 
with  the  first  pair  of  legs.     3,  The  second  segment,  with  the  second  pair  of 
legs  and  the  first  pair  of  wings.     4,  The  third  segment,  with  the  third  pair 
of  legs  and  second  pair  of  wings.     5,  The  abdomen  without  legs. 

CHART  No.  3. 
NUTRITIVE  SYSTEM-HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Organs  of  Man. — 1,  The  parotid  gland.     2,  The  submaxillary  gland. 
3,  The  sublingual  gland.     4,  The  oesophagus.     5,  The  larynx  and  trachea. 
6,  The  left  lung.     7,  The  right  lung.     8,  The  heart.     9,  The  vena  cava  de- 
scendens.     10,  The    aorta.     11,  The   pulmonary   artery.     12,  The   stomach. 
13,  The  left  and  right  lobe  of  the  liver.     15,  15,  15,  The  large  intestine.     16, 
16,  16,  16,  The  small  intestine.     17,  The  diaphragm. 

B.  Internal  Organs  of  the  Sheep. — 1,  The  first  stomach  (rumen).     2,  The 
second   stomach  (reticulum).     3,  The   third   stomach  (maniplies).     4,  The 


IV        KEY  TO   NEW   OUTLINE  ZOOLOGICAL,   CHARTS. 

fourth  stomach  (abomasum  or  rennet).    5,  The  duodenum.    6,  The  spleen.    7, 
The  intestines. 

C.  Organs  of  a  winged  Reptile.— I,  The  ventricle  of  the  heart.     2,  3,  The 
auricles  of  the  heart.     4,  5,  6,  Blood-vessels.     7,  The  trachea.     8,  The  lungs. 
9,  10,  11,  The  liver  and  its  appendages.     12,  The  stomach.    13,  The  duode- 
num.    14, 15, 16,  The  intestines.     17,  The  cloaca.     18,  The  caeca. 

D.  Diagram,  of  the  Organs  of  a  Frog. — 1,  The  heart.     2,  2,  Arches  of  the 
aorta.     3,  3,  Pulmonary   artery.     4,  4,  The  pulmonary  veins.     6,  The  vena 
cava.     5,  The  digestive  canal. 

CHAET  No.  4. 
DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Digestive  Organs  of  Man. — 1,  The    upper  jaw.     2,  The  lower  jaw.     3, 
The  tongue.     4,  The  hard  palate  (roof  of  the  mouth).     5,  The  parotid  gland. 

6,  The    sublingual    gland.     7,  The  larynx.     8,  9,  The   oesophagus.     10,  The 
stomach.     11,  11,  The  liver.     12,  The  gall-bladder.     13,  Its  duct.     14,  The 
duodenum.     15,  The   pancreas.     16,  The  spleen  (milt).      17,  17, 17.,  17,  The 
small  intestine.     18,  The  caecum.     19,  The  appendix  vermiformis.     20,  20, 
The  ascending  colon.    21,  The  transverse  colon.    22,22,  The  descending  colon. 
23,  The  sigmoid  flexure  of  the  colon.     24,  The  rectum. 

B.  Digestive  Organs  of  a  Fowl. — 9,  The  oesophagus.     8,  The  crop  (ingluvies). 

7.  The  second  stomach  (proventriculus).     10,  The  gizzard.     11,  11,  The  liver. 
12,  The  gall-bladder.     13,  The  bile  ducts.     14, 14, 14, 14,  The  duodenum.     15, 
The  pancreas.     16,  The  caeca  (pouches).     17,  The  large  intestine.     24,  The 
ureter  and  cloaca.     25,  The  trachea. 

C.  Digestive  Organs   of   an    Ox.— I,  The   oesophagus.     2,  2,  The   rumen 
(paunch).     3,  The  second  stomach  (reticulurn).     4,  The  omasum  (maniplies). 
5,  The  fourth  stomach  or  abomasum  (rennet).     6,  The  duodenum  (intestine). 

D.  Digestive  Organs  of  an  Insect.— 8,  The  crop.     9,  The  gullet.     10,  The 
gizzard.     14,  14,  The  chylific  (digestive)  stomach.     16, 16,  Caeca  (bile-tubes), 
17,  The  intestine.     18,  The  renal  vessels.     24,  The  cloaca. 

E.  Digestive  Organs  of  the  Sword-Fish.— 1 1,11,  The  liver.  13,  The  bile  duct. 

16,  16,  The  caacas  (pouches).     17,  17,  17,  The  intestine.     24,  The  cloaca. 

F.  Digestive  Organs  of  the  Herring. — 1,  1,  The  air-bladder.     2,  The  air- 
duct  (pneumatic).     9,  The  oesophagus.     10,  The  stomach.     16,  The  cseca. 

17,  17,  17,  The  intestine. 

CHART  No.  5. 
ABSORPTIVE  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Absorbent  Vessels  in  Man. — 1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  Lymphatic  vessels  and  glands 
of  the  lower  extremities.  8,  Lymphatic  vessels  of  the  kidney.  11,  12,  The 
thoracic  duct.  10,  10,  10,  The  intercostal  lymphatics.  13,  Lymphatics  of 
the  neck.  14,  14,  Carotid  arteries.  15,  Axillary  glands.  16,  17,  18,  Lym- 
phatics of  the  arm  and  hand.  19,  Lymphatics  of  the  face.  20,  The  right  in- 


KEY   TO   NEW   OUTLINE   ZOOLOGICAL   CHARTS.          V 

nominata  vein.     21,  The  junction  of  the  thoracic  duct  with  the  left  subcla- 
vian  vein. 

B.  Section  of  the  Layers  of  the  Skin.— I,  The   dermis.     2,  The  epidermis. 
3,  Its  cuticle.     4,  Its  soft  layer.     5,  Subcutaneous  connective  and  adipose  tis- 
sue.    6,  Tactile  papillae.      7,  Sweat  or  perspiratory  glands.     8,  Its  duct.     9, 
Spiral  passage  of  the  duct  through  the  epidermis.     10,  10,  The  termination 
of  the  duct  on  the  surface  of  the  epidermis. 

C.  Section  of  the  Papilla  and  Glands  of  the  Skin.— I,  1,  1,  1,  Ridges  of  the 
cuticle  (cut  perpendicularly).     2,  2,  2,  2,  Furrows  or  wrinkles  of  the  cuticle. 
3,  The  epidermis.     4,  Its  colored  layer.     5,  The  dermis.     6,  6,  6,  The  papillae. 
7,  7,  Small  furrows  between  the  papillae.     8,  8,  8,  8,  Deeper  furrows  between 
each  couple  of  the  papillae.     9,  Cells  filled  with  fat.     10,  10,  10,  The  adipose 
layer,  with  numerous  fat  vesicles.     11,  11,  Cellular  fibres  of  the  adipose  tissue. 
12,  Two  hairs.     13,  Sweat  or  perspiratory  gland,  with  its  spiral  duct.     14, 
A  perspiratory  gland  with  a  duct  less  spiral.     15,  15,  Oil-glands,  with  ducts 
opening  into  the  sheath  of  the  hair. 

CHART  No.  6. 
EESPIRA TOR  Y  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND  COMPARA  TIVE. 

A.  Respiratory  Organs  of  Man.— I,  The  larynx.     2,  The  trachea.     3,  The 
right  bronchia.     4,  The  left  bronchia.     5,  6,  7,  Lobes  of  the  right  lung.     8, 

9,  Subdivisions  of  the  bronchi  or  bronchial  tubes.     10,  10,  10,  10,  Air  cells. 
11,  11,  The  diaphragm. 

B.  Diagram  of  the  Blood-vessels  in  Man. — 1,  The  vena   cava   descendens. 
2,  The  vena  cava  ascendens.     3,  The  right  ventricle  of  the  heart.     4,  The 
left  ventricle.     5,  6,  The  aorta.     7,  The  pulmonary  artery.     8,  9,  Divisions 
of  the  pulmonary  artery. 

C.  Section  of  a  small  Mammal. — 1,  The  oesophagus.     2,  The  trachea.     5, 
6,  The  lungs.     7,  The  heart.     8,  The  stomach.     9,  The  liver.     10,  10,  In- 
testines.    11,  11,  The  diaphragm.     12,  13,  The  kidney  and  duct.     14,  The 
brain.     15,  15,  15,  The  spinal  cord.     16,  16,  The  vertebrae.     17,  Caeca. 

D.  Diagram  of  the  Lungs  of  a  Bird. — 2,  A  bronchial  tube.     3,  4,  Divisions 
of  the  bronchi  that  end  in  sacs.     8,  8,  9,  9,  Abdominal  air-sacs. 

E.  Lung  of  a  Goose. — 2,  A  bronchus.     3,  4,  The  bronchial  tubes  laid  open. 

10,  10,  10,  Apertures  of  communication  with  air-cells.     11,  11,  Abdominal 
bronchial  orifices. 

G.  Respiratory  Organs  of  the  Water-scorpion. — 1,  The  head.  2,  The  base 
of  the  first  pair  of  feet.  3,  The  first  ring  of  the  thorax.  4,  The  base  of 
wings.  5,  Base  of  the  second  pair  of  feet.  6,  6,  6,  6,  Stigmata  (opening  at 
the  edge  of  each  joint).  7,  7,  7,  7,  Tracheae  (air-tubes).  8,  8,  Air-sacs. 

F.  Diagram  of  the  Bronchial   Leaflets   of  the    Cod. — 1,  A    section    of    a 
bronchial  arch.     3,  Bronchial  leaflets  or  plates. 

J.  Diagram  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  through  the  Bronchial  Leaflets. — • 
1,  A  section  of  a  bronchial  arch.  2,  A  section  of  a  bronchial  artery.  3,  3, 
An  arterial  branch  along  the  outer  margin  of  the  processes,  giving  off  capil- 


VI        KEY  TO  NEW  OUTLINE  ZOOLOGICAL  CHARTS. 

lary  vessels  to  the  leaflets.     4,   A  vein  that  receives  the  blood  from  the  capil- 
laries of  the  inner  margin  of  the  process.     5,  Bronchial  vein. 

H.  A  Plexus  of  Capillary  Vessels. 

K.  Diagram  of  the  Relative  Position  of  the  Blood-vessels  to  the  Air-cells. — 

I,  A  bronchial  tube  communicating  with  the  air-cells,  2,  2,  2.     3,  A  branch 
of  the  pulmonary  artery  containing  bluish  blood.     4,  A  branch  of  a  pulmo- 
nary vein  containing  scarlet  or  purified  blood. 

CHART  No.  7. 
CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Circulation  in  Man. — 3,  4,  The  heart.     5,  The  pulmonary  artery.     6, 
Its  branch  to  the  left  lung.     7,  The  vena  cava  descendens.     8,  The  vena 
cava  ascendens.     9,  The  descending  aorta.     10,  The  right  femoral  artery. 

II,  The  left  femoral  vein.     12,  The  subclavian  artery.     13,  The  subclavian 
vein.     14,    The   jugular  vein.      15,  The  axillary  vein.      16,  The   brachial 
vein  and  artery.     17,  The  kidney. 

B.  Diagram  of  the  Circulation  in  Reptiles. — 1,  Ventricle.     2,  Left  auricle. 
3,  Right  auricle.     The  arrows  show  the  direction  of  the  blood. 

C.  Diagram  of  the  Circulation  in  the  Fish. — 1,  The  pericardium.     2,  The 
ventricle  that  receives  blood  from  the  body.     3,  The  ventricle  that  sends 
blood  to  the  gills. 

D.  Diagram  of  the  Heart  of  Mammals. — 1,  The  vena  cava  descendens.   2, 
The  vena  cava  ascendens.     3,  The  right  auricle.     4,  The  opening  between 
the  right  auricle  and  right  ventricle.     5,  The  right  ventricle.     6,  The  tricus- 
pid  valves.     7,  The  pulmonary  artery.    8,  8,  Its  branches.     9.  The  semi-lunar 
valves  of  pulmonary  artery.     10,  The  septum  between  the  two  ventricles  of 
the  heart.      11,  11,  The  pulmonary  veins.      12,  The  left  auricle.     13,  The 
opening  between  the  left  auricle  and  the  left  ventricle.     14,  The  left  ventricle. 
15,  The  mitral  valves.   16,  The  aorta.     17,  The  semi-lunar  valves  of  the  aorta. 

E.  The  Heart  and  Arteries  of  a  Snail.— 2,  The  stomach.     3,3,  The  intes- 
tine.    5,  The  heart,     6,  The  aorta.     7,  The  pulmonary  artery. 

CHART  No.  8. 
NERVOUS  SYSTEM— HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  Section  of  the  Human  Brain  and  Spinal  Column. — 1,  The  cerebrum.     2, 
The   cerebellum.     3,  The   medulla   oblongata.      4,  4,  The  medulla   spinalia 
(spinal  cord)  in  the  canal  formed  by  the  vertebrae  of  the  spinal  column. 

B.  Sack  view  of  the  Brain  and  Nerves  in  Man. — 1,  The  cerebrum.     2,  The 
cerebellum.      3,    The    spinal   cord.      4,  Nerves    of  the    face.      5.    Brachial 
plexus  of   nerves.     6,  7,  8,  9,    Nerves   of   the  arm.     10,  Nerves  that  pass 
under  the  ribs.     11,  The  lumbar  plexus  of  nerves.     12,  The  sacral  plexus 
of  nerves.     13,  14,  15,  16,  Nerves  of  the  lower  extremities. 

C.  The  Sympathetic  Nerves. — 1,  The  renal  plexus  of  nerves.     2,  3,  4,  The 
lumbar  plexus.     6,  The  semi-lunar  ganglion  and  solar  plexus.     7,  7,  7,  The 


KEY   TO   NEW   OUTLINE   ZOOLOGICAL   CHARTS.       Vll 

thoracic  ganglions.     8,  9,  The  right  and  left  coronary  plexus.     10,  11,  12, 
The  cervical  ganglions. 

D.  Bane  of  the  Brain  of  a  Horse. — 1,  The  cerebrum.     2,  The  optic  gan- 
glion.    3,  The  cerebellum.     4,  The  medulla  oblongata  and  spinal  cord. 

E.  Brain  of  an  Alligator. — 1,  The  olfactory  ganglion.     2,  The  cerebrum. 
3,  The  optic  ganglion.     4,  The  cerebellum.     5,  The  medulla  oblongata  and 
spinal  cord. 

F.  Brain  of  a  Bird. — 1,  The  cerebrum.     2,  The  optic  ganglion.     3,  The 
cerebellum.     4,  The  medulla  oblongata. 

G.  Brain  of  a   Fish. — 1,  The  olfactory  ganglion.     2,  The  cerebrum.     3, 
The   optic  ganglion.     4,   The  cerebellum.      5,  The  medulla  oblongata  and 
spinal  cord. 

H.  Nervous  System  of  the  Beetle. — 1, 1,  2,  2,  Nervous  ganglions  and  cords. 
I.  Diagram  of  the  Nervous  System  of  the  Centipede. 

J.  Diagram  of  the  Star-Fiah. — The  nervous  matter  is  arranged  in  a  ring 
about  the  mouth,  which  sends  off  branches  in  different  directions. 

CHART  No.  9. 
SPECIAL  SENSE— HUMAN  AND  COMPARATIVE. 

A.  The  Nervous  System  of  Man. — 1,  The  convolutions  of  the  large  brain 
(cerebrum).     2,  The  lesser  brain  (cerebellum).     3,  The  cervical  nerves.     4, 
The  dorsal  nerves.     5,  The  lumbar  nerves.     6,  The  sciatic.     7,  The  exter- 
nal popliteal  nerve.     8,  The  tibial  nerve.     9,  Median  and  cubital  nerves. 

B.  Section  of  the  Globe  of  the  Eye.— I,  The  choroid  coat  of  the  eye.     2, 
The  sclerotic  coat.     3,  The  retina.      4,  The  cornea.     5,  5,  The  iris.     6,  The 
pupil.     8,  9,  The  chambers  of  the  eye  that  contain  the  aqueous  humor.     10, 
The  crystalline  lens.     11,11,  Tue  vitreous  humor.     12,  Optic  nerve.     13,  The 
central  artery  of  the  eye. 

D.  Distribution  of  the  Trifacial  (fifth  pair)  Nerve.— I,  The  trifacial  nerve. 
2,  A  branch  that  passes  to  the  eye.  3,  A  branch  distributed  to  the  teeth  of 
the  upper  jaw.  4,  The  branch  that  passes  to  the  tongue  (5)  and  teeth  of 
the  lower  jaw.  6,  This  division  that  passes  to  the  tongue  is  the  nerve  of 
taste  (gustatory).  7,  The  terminal  branches  of  the  upper  maxillary  dis- 
tributed to  the  face. 

D.  Distribution  of  the   Olfactory  Nerve.— I,  The   olfactory  nerve.     2,  2, 
The  fine  divisions  of  this  nerve  on  the  membrane  of  the  nose.     3,  A  branch 
of  the  fifth  pair  (trifacial)  nerve. 

E.  View  of  the  Ear. — 1,  The  auditory  canal.     2,  The  drum  of  the  ear 
(membrana  tympani).     The  chain  of  bones  in  the  ear — (3,  The  mall'eus.     4, 
The  incus,  and,  5,  The  stapes.)     6,  The  cavity  of  the   tympanum.     7,  The 
vestibule.     8,  9,  10,  The  semi-circular  canals.      11,  11,  12,  Channels  of  the 
cochlea.     13,  The  auditory  nerve  (nerve  of  hearing).     14,  The  opening  from 
the  middle  ear  to  the  throat  (Eustachian  tube). 

F.  Compound  Eyes  of  the  Bee. — Its  division  into  facets  (highly  magnified). 
F.  Facets  still  more  highly  magnified. 

F.  Facets  with  hairs  growing  between  them. 


QUESTIONS,  DIAGRAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FOR  ANALYTICAL  STUDY  AND  RECITATION, 

ALSO  FOR  UNIFIC  AND  SYNTHETIC  REVIEW  OF 

CUTTER'S  ANALYTIC  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY  AND  HYGIENE, 

HUMAN   AND    COMPARATIVE. 


PROFITABLE  reading  and  study  require  the  same  analysis  and 
method  as  clear  and  efficient  teaching.  Unification  of  ideas  and 
principles  is  also  aided  by  varied  and  frequent  reviews. 

To  aid  pupil  and  teacher,  the  following  Questions,  Diagrams  and 
Illustrations  have  been  prepared.  The  Questions  in  the  larger 
type  are  to  be  used  in  the  analytic  study  and  recitation  of  para- 
graphs; those  in  the  smaller  type,  to  aid  pupil  and  teacher  to 
secure  uniftc  investigation  and  review  of  parts  more  or  less 
analogous  in  structure,  function  or  hygiene;  while  the  diagrams 
and  illustrations  are  to  be  used  in  synthetical  examination  and 
review  of  the  sections,  chapters  and  divisions. 

I  would  also  suggest  the  use  of  the  blackboard  in  drawing 
outline  figures  and  diagrams,  and  in  writing  the  topics  to  be 
reviewed. 

Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1871,  by 

CALVIN  CUTTER,  M.D., 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


DIVISION  I.— OUTLINE  PRINCIPLES. 

ANALYTIC  EXAMINATION. 

CHAPTER  I.— GENERAL  REMARKS. 

§  1.   The  Three  Kingdoms  of  Nature  Compared. 

1.  State    the   Linnsean  distinctions  of  the  three  kingdoms  of 

Nature.     Name  the  three  kingdoms,  and  define  each. 

2.  Of  what  are  Organic  and   Inorganic  bodies  combinations? 

What  is  said  respecting  Life-force? 

3.  Give  the  distinguishing  features  of  Organized  and  Unorganized 

matter. 

4.  State  the  distinctions  between  animals  and  plants. 

5.  What  is  said  of  these  distinctions  in  the  lower  forms  of  life  ? 

I  2.  Definition  of  Terms. 

6.  Define  Organ,  Apparatus  and  Function.    What  is  Anatomy  ? 

Physiology  ?    Hygiene  ? 

7.  Of   what    are    organs    composed?      Define    Histology    and 

Chemistry. 

CHAPTER  II.— GENERAL  HISTOLOGY. 
33.  Cells. 

8.  Where  do  you  find  Unity  of  Plan? 

9.  Define  Protoplasm.    What  is  Animal  Protoplasm  ? 

10.  What  is  said  of  nucleated  cells?    Of  the    modifications  of 

these  cells? 

11.  Distinguish  between  animal  and  vegetable  cells. 

12.  Of  what  is  the  simple  cell  the  type? 

13.  Of  what  does  a  simple  cell  consist?    Give  an  illustration. 

14.  To  what  modifications  are  cells  subject? 

15.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  cells  ? 

16.  In  what  ways  do  cells  multiply  ? 

17.  What  is  said  of  the  growth  and  decay  of  cells  ? 

§  4.  Primary  Tissues. 

18.  How  are  the  different  tissues  of  the  body  formed  ?    Upon  what 

do  their  characters  depend? 

19.  To  what  are  the  Primary  Tissues  reducible  ? 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGEAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS.  5 

20.  State  the  object  and  character  of  the  Connective  Tissues. 

21 .  Of  what  is  the  Fibrous  form  composed  ?    State  its  nature  and 

forms. 

22.  Give  the  composition  and  forms  of  the  White  Fibrous  tissue. 

What  is  Gelatin? 

23  Describe  the  Yellow  Fibrous  tissue.  Why  called  Elastic?  Does 
it  gelatinize?  Where  found?  When  found  together,  what 
proportion  of  White  to  Yellow  Fibrous  tissue  ?  Observation. 

24.  Of  what  does  the  Areolar  form  consist  ?    What  is  said  of  its 

cellular  structure  ?   What  of  its  individuality  ?   Observation. 

25.  Describe  the  Cartilaginous  tissue.     Mention  the  properties  of 

Cartilage.     Where  is  this  tissue  found?     What  is  the  re- 
lation of  cartilage  to  bone? 

26.  Under  what  condition  is  Fibro-cartilage  formed  ?  State  quality 

and  adaptation. 

27.  What  peculiarity  has  the  Adipose  tissue?  Of  what  composed  ? 

Where  found  ?    Its  use  ? 

28.  Where  is  the  Sclerous  tissue  found?    What  is  said  of  its 

composition  ? 

29.  Give  the  composition  of  Muscular  tissue.  Name  its  kinds,  and 

describe  each.     What  is  its  characteristic?     What  of  its 
electrical  nature  ? 

30.  Describe  the  Tubular  tissue.    What  is  the  office  of  the  capil- 

lary vessels?    Of  what  are  their  walls  composed  ?    Where 
is  this  tissue  found  ? 

31.  How  is  the  Nervous  tissue  distinguished?    Where  found?    In 

what  respect  like  the  Muscular  tissue?     Mention  its  ele- 
ments. 

32.  Describe  the  Ganglionic  Corpuscles. 

33.  What  is  said  of  the  Gray  fibres  ?    Where  found  ? 

34.  Speak  of  the  White  fibres. 

35.  Where  are  the  gray  and  white  substances  found  ? 

$  5.  Membranes. 

36.  What  is  the  Basement  membrane?    What  is  the  Epithelium? 

Why  so  called? 

37.  Name  and  describe  the  varieties  of  the  Epithelium.     Of  what 

power  the  Cilia?  Where  is  the  Ciliated  Epithelium  found  ? 

38.  What  is  beneath  the  basement  membrane?     What  are  consti- 

tuted by  the  epithelium,  basement  membrane,  and  fibro- 
areolar  tissue  ? 

39.  Where  is  the  Serous  membrane  found?    Its  qualities? 

1* 


6  QUESTIONS,    DIAGRAMS   AND    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

40.  What  is  said  of  the  Synovial  membrane  ?     Observation. 

41.  Describe  the  Mucous -membranes. 

42.  Where  is  the  Gastro-Pulmonary  Mucous  membrane  found? 

43.  Where  the  Urinary? 

44.  What  is  continuous  with  the  Mucous  membrane  ?   Observatioa 

CHAPTER  III.— GENERAL  CHEMISTRY. 
§6.  Solids  and  Fluids. 

45.  Of  what  is  the  human  body  composed  ?    What  is  said  of  the 

proportion  of  solids  and  fluids  ? 

46.  What  are  Proximate  Constituents?    Define  Organic  and  In- 

organic Proximate  Constituents. 

47.  Name  the  Inorganic  Proximate  Constituents. 

48.  Give  the  classes  of  Organic  Proximate  Constituents. 

49.  What  are  contained  in  the  Nitrogenous  class?  Name  the  most 

important. 

50.  What  is  the  office  of  Albumen  in  the  animal  economy?    Give 

the  derivation  of  its  name.    Whefe  found?    What  pecu- 
liarity has  it? 

51.  Describe  Albuminose. 

52.  What  is  Fibrin?    Where  found?    What  is  the  influence  of 

alcohol  upon  it? 

53.  Describe  Musculin.    How  hardened? 

54.  Where  is  Globulin  and  Hsematin  found  ? 

55.  Give  the  properties  of  Casein.    Where  does  it  exist? 

56.  Define  Cartilagin.     What  is  Osteine?    Chondrigen? 

57.  Define  and  give  the  property  of  Salivin. 

58.  Describe  Pepsin,  and  state  its  property. 

59.  What  is  Pancreatin  ?  State  its  actions. 

60.  Describe  Mucin. 

61.  WhatisNeurin? 

62.  Define  Keratin. 

63.  To  what  is  Elastin  peculiar? 

64.  Where  is  Melanin  found  ? 

65.  Of  what  use  Biliverdin?     Color? 

66.  Name  the  acids  of  the  nitrogenous  class. 

67.  Mention  the  non-nitrogenous  groups. 

68.  Of  what  are  the  fats  composed  ?    From  what  derived  ?     What 

is  Glycerine  ? 

69.  Mention  the  different  kinds  of  sugars.     Where  are  starch 

granules  found? 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.  7 

70.  Name  the  ultimate  chemical  elements,  with  their  percentage 

proportions. 

71.  In  what  condition  are  oxygen  and  hydrogen  ? 

72.  What  is  said  of  carbon?      What  becomes  of  the  chemical 

elements  in  decomposition  ? 

UNIFIC  REVIEW. 

[Compare  9  with  119.] 

What  is  the  relation  of  Protoplasm  to  ossification  ? 
[Compare  11-17  with  119,  120,  152,  173,  174,  237,  240,  306,  335,339,  340,  378, 

389,  458,  464,  465,  547  and  553-556.] 

Where  do  you  find  nucleated  cells?  Have  they  any  influence  on  the  plan 
of  structure  ?  What  relation  does  the  cellular  tissue  bear  to  the  muscu- 
lar? In  the  lining  of  what  organs  do  you  find  epithelial  cells?  In  the 
lining  membranes  of  what  organs  do  you  find  ciliated  epithelium  ? 

[Compare  20-26  with  123-126,  177,  306,  334-340,  387,  388,  463  and  464.] 
Name  the  connective  tissues.     Mention  some  distinguishing  features  of 

each.     Where  do  you  find  the  white  fibrous  tissues?     Where  the  yellow 

fibrous?    Where  is  cartilage  found? 

[Compare  28  with  120-122.] 
What  tissue  is  found  in  the  bones  ? 

[Compare  29  with  173-176,  240-243,  306  and  337-340.] 
What  is  the  structure  of  muscular  tissue  ?     Where  found  ? 

[Compare  30,  341  with  459-462.] 
In  what  blood-vessels  do  you  find  the  tubular  tissue  ?     In  what  system  ? 

[Compare  31-35  with  457-462.] 
Tell  what  you  can  about  the  nervous  tissue. 

[Compare  36-38  with  237,  238,  240-243,  246,  335,  339,  340,  376-379,  388, 

389,  463  and  464.] 
Name  the  parts  of  the  body  where  you  find  the  Basement  membrane. 

[Compare  39  with  244,  246,  334,  390  and  463.] 
Where  is  the  Serous  membrane  found? 

[Compare  40  with  125  and  177.] 
What  is  the  office  of  the  Synovial  membrane? 

[Compare  41-44  with  237,  238,  240-243,  386-389,  547  and  548.] 
Name  the  Mucous  membranes.    The  mucous  membrane  lines  what  organs  ? 
Point  out  the  difference  between  mucous  and  serous  membranes.     With 
what  is  the  mucous  membrane  continuous  ? 


QUESTIONS,    DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG.  191. 


Fio.  191  (LfAdy).  DIAGRAM  EXHIBITING  THE  RELATIVE  POSITION  OF  THE  COMMON  ANA 
TOMICAL  ELEMENTS  OF  SEROUS  AND  Mucous  MEMBRANES,  THE  GLANDS,  THE  LUNGS  AND 
THE  SKIN. — 1,  Epithelium,  secreting  cells  or  epidermis,  composed  of  nucleated  cells,  and 
occupying  the  free  surface  of  the  structure  mentioned  2,  Basement  layer,  represented 
much  thicker  than  natural,  in  comparison  with  the  other  Liyors.  o,  Fibrous  layer,  in 
which  the  arteries  and  veins  (4,  4)  terminate  in  a  capillary  network.  Magnified. 


FlG.  192. 


FIG.  193. 


FIG.  192  (Leidy).  CARTILAGE.— Section  through  the  thickness  of  the  oval  cartilage  of 
the  nose.  1,  Toward  the  exterior.  2,  Toward  the  interior  surface;  highly  magnified. 
It  exhibits  groups  of  cartilage  cells  imbedded  in  a  homogeneous  matrice. 

FIG.  193  (Ltidy).  PROCESS  OF  MULTIPLICATION,  or  CARTILAGE  CELLS. — 1,  Simple  cartilage 
cell  from  the  embryo.  2,  Increase  of  cartilage  cells  by  division  of  the  primary  cell.  3,  4, 
Groups  of  cartilage  cells,  from  an  adult  articular  cartilage.  Magnified. 


FIG.  194. 


FIG.  194  (Leidy).  AN  IDEAL  CELL.—!.  Cell  with  its  wall,  protoplasm,  nucleus  ami  its 
nudeolus.  2,  The  same  divided  into  two.  3,  The  same  divided  into  four  cells.  4,  The 
same  divided  into  many  cells.  The  dark  portion,  the  protoplasm;  the  white  spot,  tin 
nucleus;  the  inner  small  circle,  the  nucleolus.  Magnified. 


QUESTIONS,  DIAGRAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW. 


Essential  distinctions  between  mine- 
ral, vegetable  and  animal  king- 
doms, 

Nature  of  life-force, 

Vitalized  and  non-vitalized  bodies 
compared, 

Animals  and  plants  compared, 

These  distinctions  in  higher  and 
lower  forms. 

Organ,  apparatus  and  functions. 

Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene, 

Structure  of  organs, 

Histology  and  Chemistry. 

Unity  of  plan  in  animals  and  plants, 

Protoplasm, 

Nucleated  cell, 

Simple  cell, 

Adaptation  to  different  offices, 

Life  and  shape  of  cells, 

Modes  of  multiplication  of  cells, 

Growth,  perfection  and  decay, 

Primary  tissues, 

Object  of  the  connective  tissue. 

Fibrous  tissue, 

Areolar, 

Cartilaginous, 

Adipose, 

Sclerous, 

Muscular, 

Tubular, 

Nervous. 

Basement  membrane, 

Epithelium, 

Serous  membrane, 

Synovial      " 

Mucous  membranes. 

Solids  and  fluids. 

Proximate  constituents, 

Inorganic 

Organic 

Nitrogenous 

Non-nitrogenous  " 

Ultimate  chemical  elements. 


Three 

Kingdoms 
compared. 

CHAP.  I. 
General 

Remarks. 

Definition 

of  Terms. 

Ofc 

Division  L 

Outline 

Principle*. 

CHAP.  II. 

H- 

General 
Histology. 

Primary 

Tissues. 

$5. 

Membranes. 

§6. 

CHAP.  III. 

Solids  and 

•     General 

Fluids. 

Chemistry. 

State  the  General  Remarks,  the  General  Histology  and  the 
General  Chemistry  of  the  human  system. 

A» 


10         QUESTIONS,  DIAGRAMS    AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

DIVISION  II.— THE  MOTORY   APPARATUS. 

ANALYTIC  EXAMINATION. 

73.  Why  is  the  Motory  Apparatus  so  called  ?    Name  its  organs. 

CHAPTER  IV.— THE  BONES. 

\  7.  Anatomy  of  the  Bones. 

74.  Of  what  does  the  Internal  Framework  of  the  body  consist? 

75.  State  the  number  and  classes  of  the  bones. 

76.  Name  the  divisions  of  bones  of  the  Head. 

77.  How  many  bones  compose  the  Skull  ?    Give  their  names  and 

positions. 

78.  What  is  said  of  the  skull-bones?    How  are  they  united? 

Observation. 

79.  How  many  bones  in  the  Face?    Name  and  describe  them. 

80.  The  Ear  has  how  many  bones  ? 

81.  State  the  number  and  names  of  the  bones  of  the  Trunk. 

82.  How  is  the  Thorax  formed?    What  its  natural  form?    What 

organs  does  it  contain  ? 

83.  What  is  the  situation  of  the  Sternum  ? 

84.  Describe  the  Eibs.    Distinguish  between  true  and  false.    Why 

the  floating  ribs  so  called?    What  of  their  length  and 
breadth  ? 

85.  Of  what  is  the  Spinal  Column  composed  ?    What  is  meant  by 

body  and  process  of  a  vertebra  ?    State  their  uses.    What 
is  said  of  the  arrangement  of  these  processes  ? 

86.  State  the  arrangement  of  the  Vertebrae. 

87.  Describe  the  Cervical  vertebras. 

88.  What  is  said  of  the  Dorsal? 

89.  How  are  the  Lumbar  distinguished  ? 

90.  What  is  found  upon  the  Anterior  and  Posterior  parts  of  the 

body  of  the  vertebrae  ? 

91.  What  are  found  between  the  arches  of  the  vertebras?    How  do 

they  differ  from  other  ligaments  ? 

92.  Speak  of  the  Intervertebral  ligaments. 

93.  Of  what  is  the  Pelvis  composed? 

94.  Describe  the  Innominatum. 

95.  What  is  the  Sacrum  ? 

96.  What  changes  occur  in  the  Coccyx  during  life? 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         11 

97.  Mention  the  number  and  names  of  the  bones  of  the  Upper 

Extremities. 

98.  Where  is  the  Scapula  situated? 

99.  To  what  is  the  Clavicle  attached? 

100.  Describe  the  Humerus. 

101.  What  is  the  Ulna? 

102.  What  is  the  position  of  the  Radius?    With  what  does  it 

articulate  ? 

103.  Speak  of  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the  bones  of  the 

Carpus. 

104.  State  the  arrangement  of  the  Metacarpal  bones. 

105.  How  many  bones  in  the  phalanges  of  the  fingers? 

106.  How  many  in  the  Lower  Extremities?    What  their  names? 

107.  What  is  said  of  the  Femur? 

108.  Patella? 

109.  Tibia? 

110.  Fibula? 

111.  Tarsus? 

112.  Of  how  many  bones  does  the  Metatarsus  consist? 

113.  How  many  do  the  phalanges  of  the  toes  contain  ? 

114.  How  are  joints  formed?     Name  their  groups. 

115.  Mention  and  describe  each  kind  of  immovable  joints. 

116.  What  are  the  mixed  joints?    Give  examples. 

117.  What  is  said  of  movable  joints?  How  many  kinds ?   Describe 

each. 

118.  Give  special  description  of  certain  forms  of  movable  joints. 

\  8.  Histology  of  the  Bones. 

119.  What  is  the  character  of  the  primitive  basis  of  bone?    State 

the  changes  prev:ous  to  ossification. 

120.  Give  the  Intra-cartilaginous  mode  of  ossification. 

121.  State  the  Intra-membranous  mode. 

122.  What  are  the  structure  and  texture  of  the  long  bones  ?    Where 

is  the  Medulla  found? 

123.  Distinguish  between  the  Periosteum  and  Endosteum. 

124.  Of  what  service  is  Cartilage?    How  arranged? 

125.  Of  what  use  the  Synovial  membrane?    Name  and  describe 

its  kinds. 

126.  What  are  found  in  connection  with  the  Synovial  membrane? 

Describe  the  several  kinds  of  ligaments. 


12         QUESTIONS,   DIAGEAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

§  9,  Chemistry  of  the  Bones. 

127.  Of  what  are  the  bones  composed?    Mention  the  mineral  con- 

stituents.    Observation. 

g  10.  Physiology  of  the  Bones. 

128.  Name  the  uses  of  the  Bones. 

129.  What  qualities  found  in  bone? 

130.  What  advantages  result  from  the  structure  and  arrangement 

of  the  skull-bones? 

131.  Mention  the  offices  of  the  spinal  column. 

132.  How  are  strength  and  firmness  secured  ?    How  the  necessary 

rotary  movement?    To  what  are  the  muscles  attached? 
**  What  arrangement  for  the  spinal  cord  ?    What  provision 
is  made  to  prevent  injury  to  the  brain  ? 

133.  What  purpose  do  the  Ribs  serve? 

134.  State  the  offices  of  the  Pelvis. 

135.  What  is  said  of  the  form  and  proportion  of  the  Upper  Ex- 

tremities as  relating  to  the  hand  ? 

136.  Compare  the  Lower  Extremities  with  the  Upper. 

137.  Why  are  the  shafts  of  the  long  bones  hollow  ? 

138.  Enumerate  the  uses  of  the  joints. 

139.  State  the  purposes  of  the  different  classes  of  joints. 

140.  Give  the  use  of  the  Synovia. 

141.  What  is  said  of  Cartilage? 

142.  Speak  of  the  function  of  the  Ligaments. 

143.  Of  what  service  the  Periosteum  ? 

144.  What  is  illustrated  by  each  bone? 

\  11.  Hygiene  of  the  Bones. 

145.  What  is  the  influence  of  exercise  on  the  health  of  the  bones? 

How  should  it  be  taken  ? 

146.  To  what  are  the  lower  extremities  of  the  very  young  not 

adapted  ? 

147.  What  should  be  avoided?    Why? 

148.  Why  should  an  erect  position  be  maintained  ? 

149.  How  are  distortions  of  the  body  produced  ? 

150.  What  statement  by  eminent  physicians?    How  may  slight 

curvatures  of  the  spine  be  prevented  or  cured? 

151.  In  the  fracture  of  bones  or  injury  of  limbs,  what  is  necessary? 

What  is  "  White  Swelling  ?"    Observation. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         13 

\  12.  Comparative  Osteology 

152.  Name  and  describe  the  sub-kingdoms. 

153.  Give  the  classes  of  the  Vertebrata. 

154.  Compare  the  Vertebral  Column  of  Mammals.    What  is  said 

of  it  in  Birds  ?    Eeptiles  ?    Fishes  ? 

155.  What  is  said  of  the  bones  of  the  /head  in  Mammals  ?    Birds  ? 

Eeptiles?    Fishes? 

156.  Why  not  a  Clavicle  in  the  ox.   Describe  the  clavicle  of  Birds. 

Eeptiles.    Fishes. 

157.  What  of  the  Scapula  of  the  lower  order  of  animals  ? 

158.  Speak  of  the  Sternum  of  Birds.    Eeptiles.     Fishes. 

159.  Describe  the  Eibs  in  the  different  classes. 

160.  What  is  said  of  the  Humerus? 

161.  What  of  the  Eadius  and  Ulna? 

162.  What  of  the  Carpus  and  Metacarpus  ? 

163.  Compare  Posterior  and  Anterior  Extremities  of  the  several 

classes.    What  suggestion  by  the  author? 


UNIFIC  EEVIEW. 

[Compare  74  with  152.] 

What  constitutes  the  Skeleton?    What  is  said  of  it  in  the  different  sub- 
kingdoms? 

[Compare  76-80  with  155.] 
Compare  the  Bones  of  the  Head  in  man  with  those  of  the  lower  animals. 

[Compare  81-97  with  154,  158  and  159.] 

What  are  the  bones  of  the  Trunk  ?  Are  they  all  found  in  the  lower  animals? 
Which  is  the  largest  bone  in  a  Bird  ? 

[Compare  97-106  with  160-162.] 

Name  all  the  bones  of  the  Upper  Extremities  in  the  different  classes  of  the 
Vertebrata.    What  peculiarity  in  the  clavicle  of  Birds  ? 

[Compare  106-113  with  163.] 
Describe  each  bone  of  the  Lower  Extremities. 

[Compaq  119-122  with  8-11  and  152.] 

What  is  the  earliest  organic  form  of  living  things  ?     State  the  process  of 
ossification. 

[Compare  123  with  21-24.] 

What  tissue  in  the  Periosteum  ?     Use  of  this  membrane  ? 
2 


14         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


[Compare  126  with  21-23.] 
What  tissue  forms  the  Ligaments?     What  does  Ligament  signify? 

[Compare  127  with  47,  52,  56  and  70.] 
Name  both  the  organic  and  inorganic  matter  in  bones. 

[Compare  145  with  202,  213,  214,  281,  361  and  506.] 

What  is  necessary  to  the  health  of  the  bones  ?  What  results  follow  a  want 
of  exercise  ?  State  the  influence  of  exercise  upon  the  health  of  the  dif- 
ferent organs. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         15 

Fm.  196. 


16        QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


§7. 

Anatomy  of. 


Histology  of. 


SYNTHETIC  EEVIEW. 

The  Skeleton  and  its  uses, 

Number  and  classes, 

Head,  Trunk, 

Upper  Extremities, 

Lower  Extremities, 

Joints, 

Definition  and  classes  of  Joints, 

Immovable  Joints, 

Mixed,  Movable, 

Peculiar  forms  of  Movable. 

Formation  of  Temporary  Cartilage, 

Intra-cartilaginous  mode  of  ossification, 

Intra-membranons  mode, 

Structure  of  the  Long  Bones, 

Periosteum,  Endosteum, 

Cartilages  of  the  Joints, 

Synovial  membrane,  Ligaments. 

Chemical  Composition,  \        g  9. 

Experiment  showing  earthy  and  animal  matter.  )  Chemistry  of. 

General  uses  of, 

Adaptation  of  their  structure  to  their  uses, 

Skill  as  shown  in  the  Skull, 

Spinal  Column, 

"  Kibs, 

"  Pelvis, 

Upper  Extremities, 

"  Lower  Extremities, 

Long  Bones, 
The  uses  of  the  Joints, 
Classification  of  the  Joints, 
Of  Movable  Joints, 
Function  of  the  Synovia, 


§10. 

Physiology 
of 


Ligaments, 
Periosteum, 

Perfection  of  this  part  in  the  animal  fabric. 
Effect  of  exercise  upon  the  bones  of  children, 
"        compression, 
"        stooping, 
Treatment  of  Fractures, 
"  Sprains, 

Felons. 
Classification  of  Animals, 

Vertebrates, 

Compare  Spinal  Column  of  Vertebrates, 
"         Bones  of  the  Head, 
"          Thorax, 

Extremities. 

Give  the  Human  and  Comparative  Anatomy  and  Histology  of 
the  Bones ;  the  Chemistry,  the  Physiology  and  the  Hygiene. 


Hygiene  of. 


Comparative 
Osteology  of. 


CHAP.  IT. 
The  Bones 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         17 

ANALYTIC    EXAMINATION. 

CHAPTER  V.— THE  MUSCLES. 

\  13.  Anatomy  of  the  Muscles. 

164.  What   property   do   the   Muscles    possess?     By  what  law 

governed  ?    Give  the  different  forms. 

165.  Describe  the  Fasciae.  Speak  of  the  attachment  of  the  muscles. 

166.  Give  the  number  and  kinds  of  the  muscles. 

167.  How  arranged  ?     Define  Extensors  and  Flexors.     Examples. 

168.  State  the  office  of  the  Occipito-Froritalis ;  of  the  Orbicularis 

Palpebrarum  ;  of  the  Orbicularis  Oris;  of  the  Masseter 
and  Temporal ;  of  the  Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid. 

169.  Of  the  Pectoralis  Major ;  of  the  Serratus  Magnus ;  of  the  Ob- 

liquus  Externus  and  Rectus  Abdominalis. 

170.  Of  the  Trapezius,  Rhomboideus  Major  and  Minor ;  of  the 

Latissimus  Dorsi;  of  the  Serratus  Posticus  Inferior. 

171.  Of  the  Deltoid;  of  the  Biceps;  of  the  Triceps ;  of  the  Flexor 

Carpi  Radialis ;  of  the  Flexor  Carpi  Ulnaris;  of  the  Flexor 
Digitorum ;  of  the  Extensor  Digitorum ;  of  the  Extensor 
Carpi  Radialis. 

172.  Describe  the  Glutei,  Sartorius,  Rectus  Femoris,  Vastus  Ex- 

ternus, Vastus  Internus,  Triceps  Abductor  Femoris,  Biceps 
Femoris,  Extensor  Digitorum,  Peroneus  Longus,  Gas- 
trochnemius  Externus,  Tendo-Achilles. 

g  14.  Histology  of  the  Muscles. 

173.  Into  what  is  a  Muscle  separable? 

174.  By  what  is  each  muscle  invested?    What  is  Myolemma? 

175.  Name  and  describe  the  classes  of  muscles. 

176.  How  is  the  contractility  of  the  muscles  stimulated? 

177.  What  are  Tendons?    In  what  is  each  tendon  enveloped? 

178.  Where  do  you  find  the  blood-vessels  of  the  muscles? 

179.  What  position  do  the  Nerves  occupy  ?    What  is  said  of  the 

different  classes  of  the  nerves  ? 

$  15.  Chemistry  of  the  Muscles. 

180.  What  is  said  of  the  chemical  composition  of  the  muscles? 

Muscle  sugar  is  where  found? 

181.  How  does  proper  muscular   substance   differ  from  simple 

fibrous  tissue  ? 
2* 


18         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

182.  Name  some  of  the  chemical  changes  attending  muscular 

action.  What  is  said  of  the  "muscular  current"?  Ob- 
servation. 

$  16.  Physiology  of  the  Muscles. 

183.  State  the  relative  uses  of  bones  and  muscles. 

184  Name  the  uses  of  the  muscles. 

185  To  what  are  the  Voluntary  muscles  subject?    What  is  im- 

plied by  the  motion  of  a  limb  ? 

186.  Of  what  aid  the  muscular  sense  ?    What  is  said  of  the  exer- 

cise of  this  muscular  sense  ? 

187.  What  are  the  Involuntary  muscles? 

188.  What  involuntary  muscles  are  somewhat  under  the  control 

of  the  Will  ?    Of  what  advantage  this  ?    Observation. 

189.  State  the  office  of  the  Tendons.   Do  they  possess  contractility? 

In  what  respect  do  you  see  in  them  an  exhibition  of  care 
and  skill  ?  Illustrate  with  the  hand. 

190.  Define  a  Lever,  and  name  its  kinds. 

191.  Explain  each  kind. 

192.  Where  are  the  principles  of  the  first  kind  illustrated  ? 

193.  Where  those  of  the  second  ? 

194.  Of  the  third? 

195.  What  is  said  of  the  oblique  action  of  the  muscles  ?    What  is 

important  to  notice  in  this  connection?  Compare  the 
Extensors  with  the  Flexors. 

196.  Where  does  the  pulley  find  illustration? 

197.  What  is  said  of  the  direction  of  the  different  layers? 

198.  In  what  is  mechanical  skill  shown  ? 

199.  Speak  of  muscular  force. 

§  17.  Hygiene  of  the  Muscles. 

200.  What  advantage  in  possessing  healthy  muscles  ?    Name  the 

first  essential.  What  is  the  influence  of  pure  blood  on  the 
muscles? 

201.  Why  should  the  muscles  not  be  compressed  ?    What  is  said 

of  the  pressure  of  dressing  in  case  of  a  fractured  limb? 
What  are  the  results  of  tight  dresses  on  health  ?  To  what 
is  tight-lacing  compared? 

202.  How  does  exercise  promote  the  health  and  growth  of  muscles  ? 

Illustration. 

203.  State  the  relation  of  relaxation  to  contraction.     Illustration. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.  19 

204.  Give  a  reason  for  a  change  of  employment.    Illustration. 

205.  How  should  the  muscles  be  called  into  action  ?    Observation. 

206.  How  rested  ? 

207.  How  should  exercise  be  taken  ? 

208.  What  kind  of  exercise  ?    What  pastimes  should  be  chosen  ? 

209.  To  what  should  the  amount  of  exercise  be  adapted?    Ob- 

servation. 

210.  State  the  proper  time  for  exercise.    Observation. 

211.  Mention  the  influence  of  the  mind  on  the  muscles. 

212   What  should  be  taken  into. consideration  as  to  the  amount 
of  exercise? 

213.  In  what  diseases  are  great  care  and  discretion  necessary  as 

regards  exercise  ? 

214.  What  is  said  of  the  exercise  of  the  muscles  in  chronic  diseases 

of  the  digestive  organs?    What  is  important  to  secure 
beneficial  results  ?     Observation. 

215.  Why  do  the  muscles  require  erect  positions  of  the  body  ? 

216.  What  attention  should  be  given  to  children  and  youth? 

What  care  in  furnishing  school-rooms  ?    Observation. 

217.  Why  relaxation  of  muscles  necessary  in  walking,  jumping, 

etc.  ?    Observation. 

218.  State  and  illustrate  the  influence  of  education.    Observation. 

g  18.  Comparative  Myology. 

219.  What  is  said  of  the  muscles  of  Mammals?    Of  their  color? 

220.  For  what  is  the  muscular  system  of  Birds  remarkable  ? 

221.  Speak  of  the  muscles  of  Keptiles. 

222.  What  modification  of  muscles  in  Fishes?    What  color? 

UNIFIC  EEVIEW. 

[Compare  164,  165,  166  with  173,  174  and  219-222.] 

What  is  the  structure  of  the  muscles  ?  State  their  relation  to  the  bones. 
Compare  the  muscles  of  man  with  those  of  other  mammals.  What  is 
peculiar  to  muscle  ? 

[Compare  176  with  441,  450  and  469.] 

What  are  the  causes  of  muscular  activity  ?  State  the  connection  between 
the  muscular  and  nervous  system. 

[Compare  177  with  22.] 
Where  do  you  find  the  white  fibrous  and  muscular  tissue  closely  related  ? 

[Compare  178  with  371.] 
How  are  the  muscles  nourished  ? 


20        QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS    AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

[Compare  ISO  with  50-53.] 
Of  what  is  the  muscular  tissue  composed? 

[Compare  201  with  360  and  425.] 
State  the  evil  results  of  compression  of  the  muscles. 

[Compare  202  with  361  and  506.] 

What  is  the  influence  of  exercise  on  circulation  and  muscular  power? 
What  the  effect  ot  a  want  of  it  on  the  Nervous  System  ? 

[Compare  203  with  209,  210,  281  and  506.] 
In  taking  exercise,  what  caution  as  to  the  age,  time,  amount,  etc.  ? 


QUESTIONS,    DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.          21 


SYNTHETIC  EEVIEW. 


Law  of  muscular  contraction, 
Consequent  forms  of  muscles, 
Modes  of  attachment, 
Number  and  general  arrangement, 
Of  Head  and  Neck, 

"   Anterior  part  of  Trunk, 

"    Posterior 

"    Upper  Extremities, 

"    Lower  Extremities. 
Analysis, 
Sheaths, 

Voluntary  and  involuntary, 
Exciting  agents  of  contractility, 
Tendons, 
Blood-vessels, 
Nerves. 

Chemical  composition, 

Chemical  changes  attending  muscular  action, 
Muscular  current. 

Kelative  uses  of  Bones  and  Muscles, 
Important  functions, 
Relation  of  the  Will  to  muscular  action, 

muscular  sense  " 

The  muscular  sense  a  source  of  enjoyment, 
Importance  of  involuntary  movements, 
Importance  of  such  movements  being  some- 
times voluntary, 


Tendons, 
Mechanical 


exhibited  in   muscular 


powers 
action, 

Lever,  Pulley, 
Oblique  action,  etc., 
Deep-seated, 
Minute. 

Healthy  condition, 
Freedom  from  compression, 
Exercise, 

Conditions  to  be  observed  in  exercise, 
Exercise  sometimes  injurious, 
Effect  of  mental  stimulus, 
Regard  necessary  to  age  and  health, 
Position  of  the  body, 
Proper  tension, 
Education. 
Muscles  of  other  mammals  and  man, 

Birds, 

Keptiles, 

Fishes. 

Give  the  Anatomy,  the  Histology,  the  Chemistry,  the  Physiology, 
the  Hygiene,  Human  and  Comparative,  of  the  Muscles. 


818. 

Anatomy  of. 


§14. 

Histology  of. 


§15. 
Chemistry  of. 


§16. 

Physiology 


§17. 

Hygiene  of. 


§18. 

Comparative 
Myology  of. 


CHAP.  V. 
Tfie  Muscles, 


22         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  198. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS.         23 


DIVISION   II.— MOTORY  APPARATUS. 


SYNTHETIC  EEVIEW. 

SECT.  7.  Anatomy  of. 
"     8.  Histology  of. 
"     9.  Chemistry  of. 
"    10.  Physiology  of. 
"    11.  Hygiene  of. 
"    12.  Comparative  Osteology  of. ' 

"    13.  Anatomy  of. 
"   14.  Histology  of. 


"  15.  Chemistry  of. 

"  16.  Physiology  of. 

"  17.  Hygiene  of. 

"  18.  Comparative  Myology  of. 


CHAP.  IV. 
TkeBmes. 


CHAP.  V. 

The  Muscles. 


Division  II, 

Notary 
Apparatus. 


Give  the  Anatomy,  the  Histology,  the  Chemistry,  the  Physiology, 
the  Hygiene,  Human  and  Comparative,  of  the  Motory  Apparatus. 


24         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


DIVISION    III.— THE    NUTRITIVE 
APPARATUS. 

ANALYTIC  EXAMINATION. 

223.  In  what  processes  are  the  organs  of  the  Nutritive  Apparatus 

used?    Name  the  organs. 

CHAPTER  VI.— THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS. 
§  19,  Anatomy  of  the  Digestive  Organs. 

224.  What  are  included  in  the  Digestive  Organs? 

225.  Describe  the  Mouth. 

226.  What  is  said  of  the  Teeth  ?   How  many  parts  has  each  tooth  ? 

Observation. 

227.  What  are  the  temporary  teeth?    The  permanent  ?    Name  and 

describe  the  different  forms  of  the  teeth. 

228.  Of  how  many  pairs  do  the  Salivary  Glands  consist?    Name 

and  describe  each  pair.    Observation. 

229.  Describe  the  Pharynx. 

230.  What  is  the  (Esophagus  ? 

231.  What  is  said  of  the  Stomach? 

232.  Mention  the  divisions  of  the  Intestines.    Describe  the  small 

intestine. 

233.  State  the  length  and  parts  of  the  large  intestine.    Describe 

each  part. 

234.  Describe  the  Liver.     By  what  surrounded?     How  many 

lobes  ?    What  is  on  the  under  side  ? 

235.  What  is  said  of  the  Pancreas? 

236.  What  is  the  Spleen ?    Why  so  named? 

g  20.  Histoloyy  of  the  Digestive  Organs. 

237.  By  what  is  the  alimentary  canal  lined? 

238.  Describe  the  covering  of  the  mouth.    Describe  the  tongue. 

Name  and  describe  its  muscles.    Distinguish  between  hard 
and  soft  palate. 

239.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  teeth  to  the  mucous  membrane  of 

the  mouth  ?  Give  their  composition.   What  is  the  Enamel  '/ 
Describe  the  Cement. 

240.  Describe  the  walls  of  the  Pharynx. 


QUESTIONS,    DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.        25 

241.  Name  and  describe  the  coats  of  the  (Esophagus. 

242.  Describe  the  Stomach  and  its  coats. 

243.  What  is  said  of  the  coats  and  muscular  fibres  of  the  intes- 

tines?   What  are  the  Valvulae  Conniventes?     Describe 
the  Villi. 

244.  How  many  coats  has  the   Liver?     Describe  the  lobules. 

What  is  the  mid- vein?    What  relation  the  hepatic  system 
to  the  portal  ? 

245.  Describe  the  coats  of  the  Spleen. 

246.  What  is  the  Peritoneum  ? 

$  21.  Chemistry  of  the  Digestive  Organs. 

247.  What  secretions  effect  chemical  changes  during  digestion  ? 

248.  What  is  Mucus  ?    Its  composition  ? 

249.  Describe  Saliva.    Its  composition.     What  is  said  of  it  when 

first  secreted?    What  salts  does  it  contain?     State  its 
chemical  effect. 

250.  What  are  the  properties  of  Gastric  Juice  ?    Name  its  charac- 

teristic constituent.      What  saline  matter?    What  of  its 
solvent  power  ?    What  changes  does  it  effect  ? 

251.  Describe  Bile.    Its  composition.     What  changes  caused  by  it. 

252.  What  is  said  of  the  Pancreatic  Juice  ?    What  per  cent,  solid 

matter?    Its  salts?    Its  chemical  power ? 

253.  Speak  of  the  Intestinal  Juices. 

254.  State  the  summing  up  of  the  changes  in  three  staminal  prin- 

ciples of  food. 

255.  What  is  the  relation  of  acid  and  alkali  in  the  digestive  fluids  ? 

$  22.  Physiology  of  the  Digestive  Organs. 

256.  What  change  in  food  is  necessary?    What  is  Primary  As- 

similation ?    What  Secondary  ?    What  is  Digestion  ? 

257.  To  what  is  the  alimentary  canal  likened?     What  do  recent 

investigations  show  ? 

258.  Speak  of  the  changes  of  food  in  the  stomach.    Can  the  food 

return  to  the  oesophagus?  Why  not?  When  does  the 
food  leave  the  stomach  ?  What  is  there  peculiar  about  the 
Pylorus  ? 

259.  What  changes  occur  in  the  alimentary  canal  ? 

260.  What  is  said  of  the  absorbing  surface  of  the  intestines  ? 
3  B 


26         QUESTIONS,  DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

§  23.  Hygiene  of  the  Digestive  Organs. 

261.  Name  the  first  requisite  for  the  preservation  of  the  Teeth. 

What  is  the  effect  of  sudden  changes  of  temperature? 
Should  acids  be  used?  What  objection  to  the  use  of 
tobacco  ?  Why  should  the  teeth  be  frequently  examined  ? 

262.  When  should  the  temporary  teeth  be  removed?     What  do 

the  irregular  permanent  teeth  generally  require?  Does 
toothache  always  indicate  a  necessity  of  extraction  ?  Ob- 
servation. 

263.  What  is  required  for  the  health  of  the  Digestive  Organs  ? 

264.  What  is  said  of  the  quantity  of  food? 

265.  What  must  the  supply  equal?    When  must  supply  exceed 

waste? 

266.  When  should  the  quantity  of  food  be  diminished  ? 

267.  Why  is  more  food  required  in  winter  than  in  summer? 

268.  To  what  should  the  amount  be  adapted  ? 

269.  What  should  be  the  quality  of  food  ? 

270.  What  must  proper  aliment  contain  ? 

271.  How  should  food  be  cooked?     What  are  the  best  methods  of 

preparation  ? 

272.  To  what  should  the  quality  be  adapted? 

273.  What  is  said  of  vegetable  diet? 

274.  Who  require  stimulating  food?    Who  unstimulating? 

275.  What  is  said  of  the  manner  of  taking  food? 

276.  Why  should  food  be  properly  masticated? 

277.  Why  not  take  drink  with  food? 

278.  Why  should  regard  be  had  to  the  temperature  of  drink? 

279.  How  and  when  should  food  be  taken  ? 

281.  State  the  reason  for  not  taking  food  just  before  or  after  exer- 

cise. What  is  the  influence  of  moderate  exercise?  Ob- 
servation. 

282.  Why  is  it  not  best  to  eat  immediately  before  retiring  to 

sleep  ? 

283.  What  influence  does  the  mind   exert  upon  the   digestive 

organs?  How  should  indigestion  arising  from  nervous 
prostration  be  treated  ? 

284.  After  long  abstinence,  what  kind  of  food  should  be  taken  ? 

285.  What  influence  does  the  condition  of  the  skin  exert? 

286.  Why  is  pure  air  necessary?     General  Observation.     Re- 

capitulation. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS    AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         27 

$  24.  Comparative  Splanchnology. 

287.  What  is  said  of  the  Nutritive  Apparatus  of  Vertebrates? 

288.  Compare  the  mouth  and  teeth  of  the  Vertebrates. 

289.  Of  Birds.    290.  Of  Reptiles.    291.  Of  Fishes. 

292.  How  are  the  digestive  fluids  supplied? 

293.  Speak  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  of  Vertebrates. 

294.  Give  the  process  of  digestion  in  Ruminants. 

295.  Name  and  describe  the  stomachs  of  Birds. 

296.  Compare  the  alimentary  canal  of  Reptiles  with  that  of  Mam- 

mals or  Birds. 

297.  What  is  said  of  the  alimentary  canal  in  Fishes  ? 

UNIFIC  REVIEW. 

[Compare  225-227  with  287-291.] 
Compare  the  teeth  of  man  with  those  of  the  lower  animals 

[Compare  228  with  292.] 
Describe  the  Salivary  Glands  in  all  animals. 

[Compare  229-236  with  293-297.] 

Contrast  the  Digestive  Organs  of  Man  with  those  of  other  Mammals,  Birds, 
Reptiles  and  Fishes. 

[Compare  237,  238  with  36-44,  289-292,  547  and  548.] 

Give  a  full  description  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  mouth  and  alimentary 
canal  of  the  different  classes  of  animals. 

[Compare  239  with  288-291.] 
Speak  of  the  histological  composition  of  the  teeth  in  animals. 

[Compare  240-243  with  293-297.] 
Give  the  comparative  Histology  of  the  (Esophagus,  Stomach  and  Intestines. 

[Compare  244  with  292,  296  and  297.] 
What  is  said  of  the  Liver  in  the  different  animals? 

[Compare  247-255  with  45-51,  57-60,  65  and  67-70.] 
Give  an  outline  of  the  Chemistry  of  the  Digestive  Organs. 

[Compare  256-260  with  294  and  295.] 
Compare  the  digestive  processes  in  different  classes  of  animals. 

[Compare  280-286  with  209-214,  410-415  and  500-506.] 
In  what  condition  should  the  system  be  to  take  food  without  injury?    State 
the  influence  of  exercise  upon  digestion.     What  does  the  health  of  the 
human  system  require? 


28          QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  199.  FIG.  200. 

li 


FIG.  199.  STOMACH  OF  AN  Ox. — 1,  (Esophagus.  2,  Rumen  (paunch).  3,  Reticulum 
(honeycomb).  4,  Omasum  (many-plies).  5,  Abomasum  (rennet).  6,  Intestine. 

FIG.  200.  STOMACH  OF  A  SHEEP'.—!,  (Esophagus.  2,  Rumen.  3,  Reticulum.  4,  Omasum. 
5,  Abomasum,  or  rennet.  6,  Intestine. 


FlG.  201. 


FlG.  202. 


FIG.  202.  THE  ALIMENTARY  CANAL  op 
THE  SWORD-FISH. — 1,  Liver.  2,  3,  Caeca, 
or  pouches,  connecting  with  small  intes- 
tine. 4,  5,  Small  intestine,  coiled.  6, 
Large  intestine.  7,  Biliary  duct. 


FIG.  201.  THE  ALIMENTARY  CANAL  OP  THE  FLYING  LIZARD.—!,  (Esophagus.  2,  Stomach. 
B,  3,  Small  intestine.    4,  Large  intestine. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


29 


SYNTHETIC  EEVIEW. 


Mouth, 

Teeth, 

Salivary  Glands, 

Pharynx, 

(Esophagus, 

Stomach, 

Intestines, 

Liver, 

Pancreas, 

Spleen. 

Lining  membrane  of  Alimentary  Canal, 

Mouth, 
Composition  of  the  Tongue, 

"      Teeth, 
Palates, 
Pharynx, 
Coats  of  the  (Esophagus, 

Stomach, 

Intestines, 
"  Liver, 

Spleen, 
Peritoneum. 
Secretions,  Names, 

Character, 
Mucus, 
Saliva, 

Gastric  Juice, 
Bile, 

Pancreatic  Juice, 
Intestinal  Juice, 
Changes  in  Food, 
Acids  and  Alkalies. 
Assimilation, 
Chymification, 
Chylifaction, 
Destination  of  Chyle, 
Preservation  of  Teeth, 
.Removal  " 

Quantity  of  Food, 
Quality         " 
Manner  of  taking  Food, 
Condition  of  the  System, 
Nutritive  Apparatus  of  Vertebrates, 
Mouth  and  Teeth, 
Digestive  Fluids, 
Stomach  and  Intestines. 


fid. 

Anatomy  of. 


220. 

Histology  of. 


221. 

Chemistry  of. 


222. 

Physiology  of. 


2  23. 

Hygiene,  of. 


224. 

Comparative 

Splanchnology 

of. 


CHAP.  VL 
Digestive 
Organt. 


State  the  Anatomy,  the  Histology,  the  Chemistry,  the  Physi« 
ology  and  the  Hygiene,  Human  and  Comparative,  of  the 
Digestive  Organs,  figs.  199,  200,  201,  202,  203,  204. 


30         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 
FIG.  203.  FIG.  204. 


Fio.  203.  THR  ALIMENTARY  CANAL  OP  MAN.— 1,  (Esophagus.  2,  The  stomach.  3,  Car. 
diac  orifice.  11,  Pylorus.  5,  Biliary  duct.  4,  4,  4,  4,  Small  intestines.  6,  Pancreatic 
duct.  7,  Ascending  colon.  8,  Transverse  colon.  9,  Descending  colon.  10,  Rectum. 

Fio.  204.  THE  ALIMENTARY  CANAL  OP  A  FOWL.— 1,  The  oesophagus.  2,  Ingluvies  (crop). 
3,  Proventiculus  (secreting  stomach).  4,  Triturating  stomach  (gizzard).  5,  Intestine 
6,  Two  caeca. 


QUESTIONS,    DIAGRAMS    AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         31 


ANAL'YTIC    EXAMINATION. 

CHAPTER  VII.— ABSORPTION. 

298.  Define  Absorption  and  Absorbents.    State  the  difference  be- 
tween general  and  intrinsic  absorption. 


g  25.  Anatomy  of  the  Absorbents. 

299.  Of  what  do  the  Absorbents  consist?     What  is  Lymph? 

Describe  the  Lacteals. 

300.  What  is  said  of  the  Lymphatic  Glands  ? 

301.  Where  are  the  Lymphatic  Vessels  found?    State  the  kinds  of 

Lymphatics.    How  are  the  Thoracic  and  Lymphatic  Ducts 
formed  ? 

302.  Give  the  course  of  the  Thoracic  Duct. 

303.  Describe  the  Lymphatic  Duct. 

304.  Where  are  the  Lymphatic  Glands  found? 

305.  What  is  the  Portal  Vein? 

\  26.  Histology  of  the  Absorbents. 

306.  Describe  the  coats  of  the  Lymphatic  Vessels.   With  what  are 

the  larger  Lymphatic  Tubes  supplied? 

307.  What  is  the  supposed  composition  of  the  Lymphatic  Glands  ? 

308.  Give  the  origin  of  the  Lymphatics  and  Lacteals. 

309.  Of  what  does  Lymph  consist? 

§  27.  Chemistry  of  the  Absorbents. 

310.  What  chemical  changes  occur  in  the  absorbent  system  ? 

311.  Give  the  proportions  of  the  chief  ingredients  of  Chyle  in  the 

afferent  Lacteals.  In  the  efferent  Lacteals.   In  the  Thoracic 
Duct. 

312.  What  changes  take  place  in  the  Portal  circulation  ? 

g  28.  Physiology  of  the  Absorbents. 

313.  What  is  the  office  of  the  Lymphatics? 

314.  What  may  the  office  of  the  Lymphatics  include?    What  w 

said  of  disintegration  of  the  tissues? 

315.  Speak  of  the  absorbing  power  of  the  mucous  membrane. 

316.  Illustrate  the  absorbent  power  of  the  skin. 


32        QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

317.  When  are  the  fluids  of  the  serous  and  synovial  membranes 

absorbed^    Observations. 

318.  Describe  Endosmosis. 

9 

§  29.  Hygiene  of  the  Absorbents. 

319.  What  should  be  the  condition  of  the  air?    Observation. 

320.  What  influence  has  moisture?     Observation. 

321.  What  is  the  influence  of  nutritious  food  upon  absorption  ? 

322.  What  care  is  necessary  in  handling  poisons  ? 


FIG.  205. 


FlG.  205. — Small  intestine.  2,  2,  2,  Lacteals.  3,  3,  3,  Thoracic  duct.  4,  Stomach.  6, 
Colon.  6,  Pancreas.  7,. Liver.  8,  8,  Diaphragm.  9,  Heart.  10,  10,  Lungs.  11,  Large 
rein  into  which  the  thoracic  duct  opens.  12, 12,  Spinal  column. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         33 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW. 


Process  of  Absorption, 
Specific  and  General. 
Absorbents, 
Lymph, 

Lymphatic  Glands, 
Vessels, 
Thoracic  Duct, 
Lymphatic  Glands,  position, 
Absorbent  Veins. 
Lymphatic  Vessels, 

"          Glands, 
Origin  of  Lymphatics, 
Lymph. 
Changes  in  absorbent  system, 

"  portal  circulation. 

Office  of  the  Lymphatics, 
Power  of  different  tissues, 

"  "         membranes, 

Absorption  in  disease, 
Imbibition  of  membranes. 
Condition  of  the  air, 
Effect  of  nutritious  food, 
"         removal  of  cuticle. 


§25. 

Anatomy  of. 


§  26. 
Histology  of. 

827. 
Chemistry  of. 

%  28. 
Physiology  of. 

§29. 

Hygiene,  of. 


CHAP.  VII. 

The  Absorbents 


Give  the  Anatomy,  the  Histology,  the  Chemistry,  the  Physiology 
and  the  Hygiene  of  the  Absorbent  System  of  man. 


B* 


34         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIG.  206 


FIG.  206.— 1, 1,  The  absorbents  of  the  lower  extremities.  2,  The  small  intestine.  3, 
The  lacteals.  4,  4,  The  thoracic  duct.  5,  5,  5,  Absorbent  ducts.  6,  6,  Absorbents  of  the 
arms.  7,  Absorbents  of  the  neck.  8,  A  large  vein  that  opens  into  the  right  auricle  of 
the  heart.  9,  The  right  auricle.  10, 10,  The  diaphragm. 


QUESTIONS,  DIAGRAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS.  35 


ANALYTIC  EXAMINATION. 

CHAPTER  VIII.— THE  CIRCULATION. 
§30.  The  Blood. 

323.  From  what  source  is  the  blood  derived?    Of  what  does  the 

blood  consist? 

324.  For  what  purpose  is  the  blood  constantly  undergoing  loss  ? 

Observation. 

325.  Why  must  the  blood  be  kept  in  circulation  ?    Name  the  Cir- 

culatory Organs. 

g  31.  Anatomy  of  the  Circulatory  Organs. 

326.  Describe  the  Heart. 

327.  What  are  the  Arteries?    To  what  is  the  Aorta  likened? 

What  are  the  Capillaries  ?    Where  found  ? 

328.  Give  the  course  of  the  Veins.    What  constitutes  the  Systemic 

circulation  ?    What  the  Pulmonic  ? 

329.  From  what  part  of  the  heart  arises  the  Aorta  ?    Name  its 

divisions.    Describe  the  Arch. 

330.  State  the  course  of  the  Thoracic  Aorta. 

331.  What  is  said  of  the  Abdominal  Aorta,  its  divisions  and  sub- 

divisions ? 

332.  Give  the  divisions  of  the  Carotid  arteries.    To  what  parts 

of  the  body  do  the  subclavian  arteries  furnish  branches? 
What  is  said  of  the  extension  of  the  subclavian  artery  ? 

333.  How  are  the  Veins  arranged  ?    Describe  the  Superior  Vena 

Cava.     Inferior  Vena  Cava.     Portal  vein.     Pulmonary 
veins. 

• 
§  32.  Histology  of  the  Circulatory  Organs. 

334.  Of  what  is  the  Pericardium  composed  ? 

335.  What  can  you  say  of  the  Endocardium?    Where  does  the 

fibro-elastic  tissue  form  four  rings  ?    What  and  where  are 
the  Semi-lunar  valves  ? 

336.  Where  are  the  Mitral  valves?    Where  the  Tricuspids? 

337.  Upon  what  is  the  muscular  structure  of  the  heart  based? 

What  is  said  of  the  superficial  fibres?    Where  is  the 
middle  stratum  of  fibres  found  ? 

338.  Of  what  do  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  auricles  consist? 


36         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

339.  Name  and  describe  the  coats  of  the  arteries. 

340.  How  are  the  veins  constructed  ?    Describe  the  valves  in  the 

veins.    Where  found  ? 

341.  Give  the  structure  of  the  Capillaries. 

§  33.  Chemistry  of  the  Blood. 

342.  State  the  analysis  of  the  blood. 

343.  What  per  cent,  of  solid  matter  and  water  in  the  blood  ? 

344.  How  are  the  mineral  substances  distributed  in  the  blood'/ 

What  effect  has  air  on  blood  ? 

I  34,  Physiology  of  the  Circulatory  Organs. 

345.  Why  is  circulation  necessary?    Why  a  double  heart? 

346.  Give  the  Systemic  circulation ;  the  Pulmonic. 

347.  What  is  said  of  the  contraction  and  dilatation  of  the  auricles 

and  ventricles  ?    What  is  the  effect  of  such  action  ? 

348.  In  the  construction  of  the  circulatory  system,   what  was 

necessary  ? 

349.  By  what  means  are  proper  circulatory  impulses  given  ? 

350.  How  is  a  backward  flow  from  the  auricles  prevented  ?    From 

the  ventricles  ?    From  the  arteries  ?    From  the  Pulmonary 
artery  ? 

351.  How  are  the  arteries  protected  against  sudden  action  of  the 

heart? 

352.  How  is  the  current  maintained? 

353.  Explain  the  capillary  circulation ;  also  the  portal  current. 

354.  How  is  a  continuation  of  the  flow  through  the  veins  effected  ? 

355.  How  is  the  intermittent  pressure  caused  by  the  action  of  the 

heart  equalized? 

356.  What  secures  the  relative  amount  of  blood  to  each  organ? 

357.  What  provision  is  there  for  contingencies  ? 

358.  By  the  study  of  circulation  what  effect  is  produced  upon  the 

susceptible  mind  ? 

§  35.  Hygiene  of  the  Circulatory  Organs. 

359.  What  temperature  should  be  preserved  ? 

360.  Why  should  the  clothing  be  worn  loosely  ? 

361.  What  is  the  influence  of  exercise  on  circulation? 

362.  What  is  said  of  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  blood? 

Illustration. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         37 

363.  In  case  of  haemorrhage  from  divided  arteries,  what  should 

be  done  ? 

364.  In  flesh  wounds,  what  course  is  to  be  taken  ?    Observation. 

What  is  the  treatment  of  wounds  caused  by  blunt  instru- 
ments?   Of  wounds  from  poisonous  bites? 

§  36.  Comparative  Angiology. 

365.  What  is  said  of  the  blood  and  circulatory  organs  of  Mammals? 

366.  Of  Birds?    367.  Of  Keptiles ?    368.  Of  Fishes? 


UNIFIC  REVIEW. 

[Compare  323  with  313-318  and  256-260.] 
Give  in  full  the  change  in  food  during  primary  assimilation. 

[Compare  324  with  369-378.] 

How  does  the  blood  contribute  to  the  growth  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
body? 

[Compare  325  with  326-333.] 

Name  and  describe  the  organs  by  which  the  blood  effects  this  contribution. 

[Compare  326  with  365,  367  and  368.] 

Compare  the  heart  of  man  with  that  of  other  Mammals,  and  with  those 
of  Birds,  Reptiles  and  Fishes. 

[Compare  327-333  with  365-368.] 
Describe  the  blood-vessels  in  the  different  classes  of  animals. 

[Compare  359-362  with  201,  202,  211-214,  264-274,  509  and  591-607.] 
What  conditions  favor  free  circulation  ?    What  can  you  say  of  the  food  in 
this  connection  ?     How  is  exercise  essential  to  the  health  of  the  nervous 
tissue?    In  connection  with  circulation,  what  is  said  of  the  clothing  and 
bathing  ? 
4 


38         QUESTIONS,    DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW. 


130. 

TJte  Blood. 


§31. 

Anatomy  of. 


Blood,  its  circulation. 

"      loss  of, 
Circulatory  Organs. 
Heart, 
Arteries, 
Capillaries, 
Veins, 
Aorta,  Arch, 

Thoracic, 
"      Abdominal, 

Arteries,  Carotid  and  Subclavian. 
Veins,  arrangement, 
Superior  Vena  Cava, 
Inferior 
Portal  Vein, 
Pulmonary  Vein. 
Pericardium, 
Endocardium, 
Valves  of  the  heart, 
Muscular  structure  of  the  heart, 
Arteries,  their  coats, 

Veins,  CHAP. 

Capillaries.  ^  arculaiory 

Analysis  of  the  blood,  )         %  33.  Organs. 

Distribution  of  mineral  substances. 
Necessity  of  double  circulation, 
Systemic  Circulation, 
Pulmonic  Circulation, 
Their  relation  to  each  other, 
Necessary  provisions, 
Circulatory  impulse, 
Prevention  of  the  flow, 
Current  maintained, 
Flow  through  the  capillaries, 

veins, 

Equalization  of  the  current, 
Due  supply  to  each  organ, 
Provision  for  contingencies, 
Mechanism  of  the  body. 
Conditions  favoring  free  circulation, 
Treatment  of  divided  arteries. 
Blood  and  blood-vessels  of  Mammals, 

"  "  Birds, 

"  "  Reptiles, 

Fishes. 

Give  the  Anatomy  of  the  several  parts  of  the  Circulatory  Sys- 
tem, Human  and  Comparative,  the  Histology,  the  Chemistry,  the 
Physiology  and  the  Hygiene. 


§32. 

Histology  of. 


§  33. 

Chemistry  of. 


§34. 

Physiology  of. 


§35. 

Hygiene  of. 

§36. 

Comparative 


PAROTID  *4PNS3fiS5J!* 

COMMON  CAROTID  ARTER1T- 
exremvflL  JUGULAR  VBN-- 

INTBWAL  JUBULAR  VEIN- 
CLAVICLE 


BRMH1KL  ( 


FIG.  207. 


3'J 


40         QUESTIONS,   DIAGEAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fm.  208. 


FIG.  209. 


FIG.  208.  A  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  CIRCULATION  OP  MAMMALS. — 1,  Right  auricle.  2,  Right 
ventricle.  9,  Left  auricle.  10,  Left  ventricle.  4,  5,  Pulmonary  arteries.  7,  8,  Pul- 
monary veins.  11, 12, 13, 13,  Aorta  and  its  branches.  6>  «,  Pulmonary  capillaries.  14, 
14,  Systemic  capillaries.  17,  Tricuspid  valves.  19,  Mitral  valves.  18,  20,  Semilunar 
valves  of  the  pulmonary  artery  and  the  aorta. 

FIG.  209.  A  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  CIRCULATION  OF  REPTILES. — 1,  The  pericardium.  2,  The 
ventricle.  3,  The  right  auricle.  4,  The  left  auricle. 

FIG.  210.  A  DIAGRAM  OF  THE  CIRCULATION  OF  FISHES.—!,  The  pericardium.  2,  The 
ventricle.  3,  The  auricle.  4,  The  vessel  that  conveys  the  blood  to  the  branchia  (gills). 
5,  The  vessel  that  conveys  the  blood  from  the  gills  to  the  body  of  the  fish.  6,  The  vessel 
that  conveys  the  blood  from  the  body  of  the  fish  to  the  heart. 

In  these  three  diagrams  the  arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  the  blood. 


41 


ANALYTIC    EXAMINATION. 

CHAPTER  IX. — ASSIMILATION. 
g  37.  Assimilation,  General  and  Special. 

369.  How  is  life  maintained  ?    Distinguish  between  General  and 

Special  Assimilation. 

370.  What  is  said  of  the  corpuscles  of  the  blood  ?    What  of  the 

blood-plasma  ? 

371.  State  the  first  stage  in  the  nutrition  of  the  organs  and  tissues. 

What  is  the  second?   The  third?    The  fourth?    The  fifth? 

372.  How  are  new  cell-elements  reproduced?    When  does  this 

process  occur  ? 

373.  What  is  Special  Assimilation  ? 

374.  Name  the  secreting  glands  and  membranes.    What  is  said 

of  substances  not  found  in  the  blood? 

375.  How  is  excretion  effected?     Name  the  excretory  organs. 

How  are  the  substances  which  are  eliminated  from  the 
blood  in  excretion  produced? 

376.  Speak  of  the  secretory  and  excretory  processes. 
378.  Describe  the  kidneys.    Observation. 


UNIFIC   EEVIEW. 

[Compare  369  with  3.] 

In  studying  assimilation,  with  what  distinctions  between  organized  and 
unorganized  bodies  do  you  become  acquainted? 

[Compare  370  with  256-260.] 
Give  the  successive  stages  in  Primary  Assimilation. 

[Compare  371,  372  with  13-17,  45,  46,  119-121,  173,  178,  180,  181  and  460.] 
Speak  of  the  structure  of  cells,  and  tell  how  their  growth  is  promoted. 

[Compare  373,  374  with  247-255  and  36-44.] 
Name  the  secretory  organs,  and  state  the  changes  caused  by  their  secretions. 

[Compare  375-379  with  13,  14,  247,  251,  253,  391-395  and  554.] 
Distinguish  between  Excretion  and  Secretion.     In  what  processes  do  the 
epithelial  cells  become  ruptured?     Of  what  advantage  is  excretion ? 


42        QUESTIONS,   DIAGEAMS   AND   ILLUSTKATIONS. 


SYNTHETIC  EEVIEW. 

Assimilation,  General  and  Special, 
Blood,  its  formation, 
Assimilation,  Secondary,  First  Stage, 
"  "  Second  " 

« 


"  "  Fourth" 

"  Fifth     " 

Secretion, 

its  glands  and  membranes, 
Excretion, 

Secretory  and  excretory  process  compared, 
Kidneys. 


§37. 

Assimilation, 

General  and 

Special. 


CHAP.  IX. 

Assimilation, 


State  what  you  know  of  Assimilation,  general  and  special, 
Secretion  and  Excretion. 


FIG.  211. 


Fm.  211  (Leidy).  LoNQlTtTDiNAt,  SECTION  op  A  KIDNEY.—!,  Cortical  substance.  2, 
Renal  pyramid.  3,  Renal  papillae.  4,  Pelvis.  5,  Ureter.  6,  Renal  artery.  7,  Renal 
vein.  8,  Branches  of  the  latter  vessels  in  the  sinus  of  the  kidney. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.        43 


ANALYTIC  EXAMINATION. 
CHAPTER  X.— THE  RESPIRATORY  AND  VOCAL  ORGANS. 

g  38.  Anatomy  of  the  Respiratory  and  Vocal  Organs. 

380.  Of  what  do  the  Respiratory  and  Vocal  organs  consist  ? 

381.  Describe  the  Larynx.     Of  what  is  it  composed?    What  is 

said  of  the  Thyroid  cartilage?    Of  the  Cricoid?    Of  the 
Arytenoid?    Of  the  Epiglottis? 

382.  What  is  the  Trachea? 

383.  Give  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  Bronchi. 

384.  Of  how  many  divisions  do  the  Lungs  consist?    Of  what  form 

are  they?    What  is  the  Pleura?    Compare  the  Lungs. 

§  39.  Histology  of  the  Respiratory  and  Vocal  Organs. 

385.  What  is  said  of  the  structure  of  the  Larynx? 

386.  Describe  the  Vocal  cords. 

387.  Of  what  is  the  Trachea  made  up  ?    Speak  of  each  part. 

388.  Distinguish  between  the  Bronchi  and  Trachea. 

389.  How  are  the  Lungs  constructed?    In  what  way  are  the  air- 

cells  connected  together  ? 

390.  Describe  the  Pleura. 

g  40.  Chemistry  of  the  Respiratory  and  Vocal  Organs. 

391.  Of  what  does  Respiration  consist? 

392.  393.  State  the  sources  of  carbonic  acid. 

394.  Give  the  proportions  of  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  in  the 

arterial  and  venous  blood. 

395.  State  the  physical  process  by  which  an  exchange  of  oxygen 

and  carbonic  acid  in  the  capillaries  is  effected,  also  the 
chemical  process. 

396.  In  what  respect  does  expired  air  differ  from  that  inspired? 

397.  What  is  the  source  of  animal  heat?    Of  what  temperature 

the  tissues  ?    Of  what  the  blood  ? 

§  41.  Physiology  of  the  Respiratory  and  Vocal  Organs. 

398.  What  are  the  objects  of  Respiration?    What  are  the  results 

of  the  chemical  changes? 

399.  Of  what  acts  does  respiration  consist?    How  is  inspiration 

effected?    Give  the  motion  of  the  ribs  and  diaphragm. 


44         QUESTIONS,    DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

400.  What  is  said  of  the  movements  in  expiration  ?  What  muscles 

are  called  into  action  ? 

401.  Define  abdominal  and  pectoral  respiration. 

402.  How  is  the  air  in  the  air-cells  renovated  ? 

403.  Is  the  amount  of  air  taken  in  and  given  out  in  respiration 

always  the  same? 

404.  Speak 'of  the  frequency  of  respiration. 

405.  What  are  the  actions  of  sighing,  yawning,  sobbing,  laughing, 

coughing  and  sneezing  ? 

406.  What  is  the  office  of  the  Larynx  in  respiration  ?     Of  what  is 

the  Larynx  the  special  organ  ? 

407.  What  laws  govern  the  vibrations  of  the  vocal  cords? 

408.  What  modify  the  tones?  How  further  modified?  Upon  what 

does  the  general  strength  of  the  voice  depend? 

\  42.  Hygiene  of  the  Respiratory  and  Vocal  Organs. 

409.  Why  is  proper  respiration  important? 

410.  Why  must  there  be  a  constant  and  sufficient  supply  of  pure  air? 

411.  What  is  the  influence  of  carbonic  acid? 

412.  Mention  its  sources. 

413.  What  regard  should  be  had  for  the  surroundings  of  our 

dwelling-houses  ? 

414.  Where  is  the  chief  danger? 

415.  What  remarks  as  to  the  necessity  of  ventilation  of  school- 

rooms?   Of  churches? 

416.  Of  concert-halls? 

417.  State  the  influence  of  habit  in  accustoming  ourselves  to 

foul  air. 

418.  What  is  said  of  the  ventilation  of  sleeping-rooms?     Ob- 

servations. 

419.  What  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  sick-room? 

420.  Speak  of  the  means  of  ventilation  in  summer. 

421.  What  means  in  winter? 

422.  What  is  the  healthiest  known  means  for  ventilating  a  small 

room? 

423.  What  is  said  of  the  use  of  stoves  ? 

424.  Give  the  quotation  on  the  use  of  steam  for  warming  rooms. 

425.  What  besides  purity  of  air  is  required  for  proper  respiration  ? 

What  objectionable  fashion  is  noticed  ? 

426.  Compare  the  custom  of  the  Chinese  women  with  that  of  the 

American. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         45 

427.  What  effect  has  compression  of  the  mother's  chest  on  her 

offspring  ? 

428.  How  can  the  chest  made  small  by  compression  be  enlarged? 

Observation. 

429.  By  what  is  respiration  much  influenced  ? 

430.  State  the  process  of  resuscitating  persons  asphyxiated  from 

drowning,  strangulation,  electricity,  or  breathing  poisonous 
gases.    Observation. 

$  43.  Comparative  Pneumonology. 

431.  How  does  the  Respiratory  apparatus  in  all  the  mammalia 

compare  with  that  in  man  ? 

432.  Describe  the  Lungs  of  Birds. 

433.  What  is  said  of  the  Ultimate  Pulmonary  Capillaries? 

434.  What  marked  modification  of  respiration  in  Birds? 

435.  Speak  of  respiration  in  Reptiles.    436.  In  Fishes. 

437.  Describe  the  Gills. 

438.  What  remarkable  feature  in  the  organization  of  some  fish  ? 

UNIFIC  REVIEW. 

[Compare  380-385  with  431-438.] 
Compare  each  respiratory  organ  in  man  with  that  of  the  lower  classes  of 

animals. 

[Compare  385-388  with  21,  22,  23  and  25.] 
Name  the  tissues  found  in  the  organs  of  respiration.     How  disposed? 

[Compare  389  with  26,  36,  37  and  341.] 

What  tissue  in  the  Lungs?     Describe  the  variety  of  Epithelium  in  the 
organs  of  respiration,  and  name  those  organs.     Describe  the  capillaries. 

[Compare  390  with  39.] 
What  membrane  forms  the  Pleura  ?    What  is  said  of  it  and  its  secretion  ? 

[Compare  391-396  with  45,  46,  50  and  70-72.] 
Give  the  chemical  changes  which  occur  during  respiration. 

[Compare  397,  398  with  182,  186  and  187.] 
What  chemical  actions  produce  heat?     State  the  influence  of  respiration 

on  motion. 

[Compare  425-428  with  206.] 

Of  what  advantage  is  exercise  of  the  lungs?    What  is  necessary  after 
exercise  ? 

[Compare  429  with  211,  215,  509,  514  and  515. 

What  connection  is  there  between  respiration  and  mental  energy  ?    What 
caution  is  given  ? 


46          QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW. 


Larynx, 

its  parts, 
Trachea, 
Bronchi, 
Lungs. 
Larynx, 
Vocal  Cords, 
Trachea, 
Bronchi, 
Lungs, 
Pleura. 
Respiration, 
Carbonic  Acid, 

Exchange  of  Oxygen  and  Carbonic  Acid, 
Expired  and  inspired  air, 
Animal  heat. 
Object  of  respiration, 
Modes 

Renovation  of  air  in  air-cells, 
Amount  of  air  in  respiration, 
Number  of  respirations, 
Modifications  of  respiratory  movements, 
Double  function  of  the  Larynx, 
Special  "  « 

Vibration  of  the  Vocal  Cords, 
Conditions  affecting  tones, 

"       strength  of  voice. 
Importance  of  proper  respiration, 
Pure  blood,  how  obtained, 
Carbonic  Acid,  its  influence, 

its  sources, 
Dwelling-houses,  location, 

impure  air  in, 

Public  Buildings,  ventilation, 
Sleeping-rooms,  " 

Sick-rooms,  " 

Pure  air  and  warmth,  how  obtained, 
Importance  of  moisture, 
Compression  of  respiratory  organs, 
Enlargement  of  the  chest, 
Influence  of  nervous  system, 
Resuscitation  of  asphyxiated  persons. 
Mammalia,  Respiratory  Organs  of, 
Birds, 

Reptiles,  "  " 

Fishes,  "  " 


§38. 
Anatomy  of. 


§39. 

Histology  of. 


HO. 

Chemistry  of. 


Hi. 

Physiology  of  \ 


CHAP.  X. 

The,  Respiratory 

and  Vocal 

Organs. 


142. 

Hygiene  of. 


H3. 

Comparative 
Pneumonology 
of.     ' 


Give  the  Anatomy,  the  Histology,  the  Chemistry,  the  Physi- 
ology and  the  Hygiene,  Human  and  Comparative,  of  the  Organs 
of  Respiration,  figs.  212,  213,  214,  215,  216. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS.        47 


FIG.  213. 


Fia.  212. 


FIG.  212.  3,  3,  3,  The  lobes  of  the  right  lung.  4,  4,  The  lobes  of  the  left  lung.  5,  6,  7, 
The  heart.  9, 10, 11,  The  large  blood-vessels.  12,  The  trachea.  15, 15, 15,  The  diaphragm. 

FIG.  213.  1,  Outline  of  right  lung.  2,  Outline  of  left  lung.  3,  4,  Larynx  and  trachea. 
5,  6,  7,  8,  Bronchial  tubes.  9, 9,  Air-cells. 


FIG.  214. 


FIG.  214.  AN  IDEAL  VIEW  OF  THE  PULMONIC  CIRCULATION. — 1, 1,  The  right  lung.  2,  2, 
The  left  lung.  3,  The  trachea,  4,  The  right  bronchial  tube.  5,  The  left  bronchial  tube. 
6,  6,  6,  6,  Air-cells.  7,  The  right  auricle.  8,  The  right  ventricle.  9,  The  tricuspid  valves. 
10,  The  pulmonic  artery.  11,  The  branch  to  the  right  lung.  12,  The  branch  to  the  left 
lung.  13,  The  right  pulmonic  vein.  14,  The  left  pulmonic  vein.  15,  The  left  auricle. 
16,  The  left  ventricle.  17,  The  mitral  valves. 


48         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


QUESTIONS,    DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.          49 


DIVISION    III.— THE    NUTRITIVE 
APPARATUS. 

SYNTHETIC  EEVIEW. 

SECT.  19.  Anatomy  of. 
u     20.  Histology  of. 
"      21.  Chemistry  of. 
"     22.  Physiology  of. 
"     23.  Hygiene  of. 
"      24.  Comparative  Splanchnology  of. 


CHAP.  VI. 

The  Digestive 
Organs. 


"  25.  Anatomy  of. 

"  26.  Histology  of. 

"  27.  Chemistry  of. 

"  28.  Physiology  of. 

"  29.  Hygiene  of. 

"  30.  The  Blood. 

"  31.  Anatomy  of. 

"  32.  Histology  of. 

"  33.  Chemistry  of. 

"  34.  Physiology  of. 

"  35.  Hygiene  of. 

"  36.  Comparative  Angiology  of. 

"  37.  Assimilation,  General  and  Spe- 
cial- 

"  38.  Anatomy  of. 

"  39.  Histology  of. 

"  40.  Chemistry  of. 

"  41.  Physiology  of. 

"  42.  Hygiene  of. 

"  43.  Comparative  Pneumonology  of. 


CHAP.  VII. 
The  Absorb- 
ents. 


Division  III 

t-      Nutritive 

CUAP.  VIII. 

Apparatus. 

•    The  Circula- 

tion. 

CHAP.  IX. 

Assimilation. 


CHAP.  X. 

Respiratory 
Organs. 


Give  succinctly  the  Anatomy,  the  Chemistry,  the  Physiology 
and  the  Hygiene,  Human  and  Comparative,  of  the  Nutritive 
Apparatus. 

5  r 


50         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


DIVISION  IV.— SENSORIAL  APPAEATUS. 

ANALYTIC    EXAMINATION. 

CHAPTER  XI.— NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

i  44.  Anatomy  of  the  Nervous  System. 

439.  What  two  formal  characters  does  Nervous  Tissue  present. 

Give  the  arrangement  and  names  of  each. 

440.  How  are  the  Ganglia,  Nerves  and  Commissures  arranged? 

What  is  included  in  each  system  ? 

441.  Describe  the  Spinal  Cord.    What  is  the  Medulla  Oblongata? 

To  what  is  this  enlargement  due  ?  What  may  be  seen  in 
each  of  the  lateral  halves  of  the  Medulla  Oblongata? 
What  forms  the  Decussation  of  the  Anterior  Pyramids? 
How  is  the  Fourth  Ventricle  formed  ? 

442.  Where  is  the  Cerebellum ?    How  is  the  Pons  Varolii  formed? 

Describe  the  Inferior  Peduncles  of  the  Cerebellum.  What 
are  the  Peduncles  of  the  Cerebrum,  and  why  so  called  ? 
Give  the  course  of  these  bundles.  How  are  these  ganglia 
connected  with  the  Spinal  Cord?  Of  what  does  the 
Quadrigeminal  Body  consist? 

443.  What  is  said  of  the  connections  of  all  the  above-mentioned 

ganglia  ? 

444.  How  are  the  hemispheres  of  the  Cerebrum  united?    How 

are  the  ventricles  formed? 

445.  Are  the  above-mentioned  all  the  ganglia,  membranes  and 

galleries  which  exist  in  the  brain  ? 

446.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  Cerebrum  to  the  other  parts? 

How  many  lobes  has  each  hemisphere?  How  does  the 
surface  appear? 

447.  How  do  the  convolutions  in  the  two  hemispheres  compare  ? 

What  is  a  remarkable  fact  respecting  these  convolu- 
tions ? 

448.  What  is  said  of  the  Cerebellum  ? 

449.  What  do  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  constitute  ? 

450.  Into  what  classes  are  the  nerves  divided  ?  How  are  the  motor 

and  sensory  tracts  formed  ? 

451.  Distinguish  between  cranial  and  spinal  nerves. 

452.  Give  the  grouping  and  arrangement  of  the  cranial  nerves. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.          51 

453.  How  many  pairs  of  spinal  nerves?    How  do  they  differ  from 

the  cranial  as  to  their  origin  ? 

454.  What  are  the  divisions  of  the  spinal  nerves  ?     What  are 

plexuses  ?    Name  them,  and  give  their  formation. 

455.  Describe  the  Sympathetic  System. 

456.  What  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  sympathetic  nerves  ? 

§  45.  Histology  of  the  Nervow  System. 

457.  Name  the  elements  of  nervous  tissue. 

458.  Describe  the  nerve-cells.    Where  found? 

459.  Of  what  do  the  White  Fibres  consist? 

460.  Where  are  the  nerve-filaments  distributed  ?     What  is  said  of 

their  individuality  ?   How  are  they  arranged  ?   What  their 
mode  of  termination  ? 

461.  Where  are  the  Tubular  Fibres  found?    What  of  their  size? 

462.  What  are  the  Gray  Fibres? 

463.  Name  the  membranes  of  the  Cerebro-spinal  System.  Describe 

the  Dura  Mater,  Pia  Mater  and  Arachnoid  Membrane. 

464.  Give  a  further  description  of  the  Dura  Mater. 

465.  What  is  the  Ependyma? 

3  46.  Physiology  of  the  Nervous  System. 

466.  What  opinions  have  men  in  different  ages  held  respecting 

the  relation  of  soul  and  body  ? 

467.  How  is  the  Nervous  System  related  to  the  compound  nature 

of  man  ? 

468.  What  influence  has  this  system  on  the  different  organs? 

469.  Speak  of  the  connection  between  the  Nervous  Centres  and 

the  motor  and  sensitive  fibres. 

470.  Classify  the  Nervous  Centres. 

471.  Give  a  full  description  of  the  relations  existing  between  the 

different  Centres. 

472.  What  is  the  function  of  the  Sympathetic  Centres? 

473.  What  is  said  of  their  connections? 

474.  Name  and  illustrate  the  different  kinds  of  reflex  action. 

475.  Give  a  marked  peculiarity  of  the  Sympathetic  System.    Illus- 

trate it  by  the  iris  of  the  eye. 

476.  What  is  the  office  of  the  white  substance  of  the  spinal  cord  ? 

What  that  of  the  gray? 

477.  How  is  reflex  action  acquired  ?    State  the  theory  of  acquired 

reflex  action  as  respects  repetition. 


52         QUESTIONS,    DIAGRAMS    AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

478.  Mention    the    influence  of  association.     Why  is  such  an 

arrangement  wise? 

479.  Describe  the  Sensational  Centres.    Show  that  these  centres 

have  an  independent  reflex  action.     Can  they  acquire  re- 
flex action  ? 

480.  What  theory  is  applicable  to  these  centres  ? 

481.  How  are  these  centres  excited  to  action  ? 

482.  What  power  have  the  Ideational  Centres  ? 

483.  Upon  what  depends  the  character  of  ideas  ? 

484.  What  is  the  first  way  in  which  the  independent  reflex  action 

in  these  centres  is  manifested  ?   What  the  second  ?  Third  ? 
Fourth  ? 

485.  Of  what  are  these  centres  the  seat  ? 

486.  What  relation  is  there  between  the  centre  of  idea  and  voli- 

tion? 

487.  What  is  the  highest  energy  of  which   these  centres  are 

capable  ? 

488.  Upon  what  does  the  power  of  the  Will  depend  ? 

489.  What  relations  to  the  Emotions  does  the  Will  sustain  ? 

490.  What  does  a  free  action  of  the  Will  require  ? 

491.  What  influence  has  the  body  over  the  thoughts,  emotions  and 

volitions  ?    How  does  the  theory  already  given  find  appli- 
cation here  ? 

492.  Where  does  the  character  of  a  man  leave  visible  tracings? 

\  47.  Hygiene  of  the  Nervous  System. 

493.  Why  is  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  the  hygiene  of  this  sys- 

tem important? 

494.  What  agencies  affect  the  health  of  this  system  ?    Name  the 

requirements  of  its  health  and  vigor. 

495.  What  in  addition  to  the  features  of  parents  do  children  in- 

herit?   May  acquired  habits  be  transmitted? 

496.  What  history  is  given  by  M.  Morel  ? 

497.  What  is  said  of  the  evil  effects  of  tobacco  ? 

498.  What  is  the  effect  of  all  vices  in  parents  ? 

499.  What  results  spring  from  nervous  diseases  in  parents?     How 

can  such  natural  constitutions  be  improved  ? 

500.  State  the  second  requirement  of  health  and  vigor. 

501.  Speak  of  the  evil  of  breathing  impure  air. 

502.  What  are  the  results  of  improper  diet? 

503.  Speak  of  the  effects  of  alcohol,  opium,  etc. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         53 

504.  How  does  the  use  of  opium  compare  with  that  of  intoxicating 

drinks  ? 

505.  What  is  said  of  the  use  of  tobacco,  tea  and  coffee  ? 

506.  What  will  a  want  of  physical  exercise  produce? 

507.  Speak  of  the  benefits  of  sleep,  and  the  amount  needed. 

508.  Name  the  third  requirement  of  health. 

509.  Why  is  mental  exercise  essential  ? 

510.  Give  the  remarks  of  Dr.  Bay.     What  is  said  of  steady  em- 

ployment? 

511.  Where  are  seen  the  saddest  effects  of  an  absence  of  stated 

employment?     What  remarks  as  to  the  little  accomplish- 
ments of  needlework? 

512.  To  what  should  the  amount  of  exercise  be  adapted?    What 

differences  are  there  in  the  quality  of  different  brains? 

513.  What  is  the  present  tendency  in  education  ? 

514.  State  the  effect  of  intense  activity. 

515.  Give  the  influence  of  recreation  and  amusement.     Observa- 

tion. 

516.  What  is  essential  to  the  highest  mental  vigor?    What  is  said 

of  the  use  of  the  imagination  ? 

517.  What  attention  is  it  important  to  pay  to  the  aesthetic  faculty? 

518.  What  is  the  moral  faculty?    Upon  what  depend  the  happi- 

ness and  destiny  of  man  ? 

519.  Give  Dr.  Kay's  remarks  concerning  the  hygienic  influence  of 

a  Harmonious  Development  of  the  Mental  Powers. 

g  48.  Comparative  Neurology. 

520.  In  what  respects  does  the  Nervous  System  of  man  differ  from 

that  of  the  lower  orders  of  animals  ? 

521.  Compare  the  brain  of  other  Mammals  with  that  of  man. 

522.  Compare  that  of  Birds. 

523.  Of  Eeptiles. 

524.  What  is  said  of  the  relative  size  of  the  Cerebrum  ?    Of  the 

Cerebellum,  Medulla  Oblongata  and  some  of  the  organs 
of  Special  Sense? 

525.  Speak  of  the  spinal  cord  and  nerves. 

526.  Describe  the  brain  of  the  Fish. 

527.  Describe  the  Torpedo. 

528.  Describe  the  Electric  Eel.    What  is  said  of  the  structure  and 

nervous  system  of  the  Articulata  ?    What  of  them  in  the 
Centipede? 
5* 


54         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

529.  Speak  of  the  nervous  system  in  Mollusks. 

530.  Describe  the  nervous  system  in  Eadiata. 

531.  How  is  stimulus  received  in  the  lowest  forms  of  animals? 

How  is  it  perceived  ?  As  we  ascend  in  the  animal  king- 
dom, what  tissue  appears  first?  What  is  the  simplest 
type?  Of  what  do  the  relations  of  the  animal  kingdom 
afford  an  evidence  ? 


UNIFIC  REVIEW. 

[Compare  439-456  with  520-530  and  471,  472.] 

Compare  the  Nervous  System  in  man  with  that  in  the  lower  orders  of 
animals. 

[Compare  457,  458  with  10,  31,  32  and  36-38.] 
Give  the  composition  of  Nervous  Tissue.     Describe  its  first  element. 

[Compare  459-462  with  33,  34  and  35.] 
Describe  the  "White  and  Gray  Fibres.     Where  are  they  found? 

[Compare  463-465  with  21,  22,  36,  37,  38  and  39.] 

What  membranes  belong  to  the  Cerebro-spinal  System  ?    What  names  do 
they  assume  there  ? 

[Compare  469-474,  479  and  482  with  441,  442,  446,  455  and  456.] 
Name  the  Nervous  Centres.     Give  their  functions.     What  do  they  com- 
prise ?     Speak  of  the  Sympathetic  System. 

[Compare  500-502  with  264-279  and  409-412.] 

What  is  essential  to  the  health  of  the  nervous  system  ?    What  is  said  of 
food  and  air  in  this  connection  ? 

[Compare  506  with  200-215.] 

What  can  you  say  of  the  influence  of  physical  exercise  on  the  health  of  the 
nervous  system? 


QUESTIONS,  DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         55 


SYNTHETIC  BEVIEW. 


Nervous  Tissue.    Forms, 

"          "          Arrangement, 
Ganglia,  Nerves  and  Commissures, 
Spinal  Cord, 
Medulla  Oblongata, 
Cerebellum,  Peduncles, 
Cerebrum,  " 

Corpora  Striata, 
Optici  Thalami, 
Corpora  Quadrigesima, 
Corpus  Callosum, 
Ventricles, 

Cerebrum  Hemispheres, 
Convolutions, 
Cerebro-Spinal  Nerves, 
Cranial  Nerves, 
Spinal  Nerves, 
Sympathetic  System. 
Nervous  Tissue,  Composition, 
Nerve-Cells, 
Nerve-Fibres, 
Membranes, 

Man's  compound  nature. 
Nervous  System.    Its  relation  to  this  nature, 

"  "  Its  rank, 

Nervous  Centres.    Function, 
"          Classes, 

"  "  Arrangement, 

Organic  Centres.    Function, 

"  Connection, 

"  "          Modes  of  reflex  action, 

"  Marked  peculiarity, 

Reflex  Centres.    Function, 

"  Acquired  action, 

"  "  Importance  of  acquired  action, 

Sensational  Centres.    Character  and  action, 

"  How  excited  to  activity, 

Ideational  Centres.    Function, 
Different  persons  have  different  ideas, 
Ideational  Centres.    Independent  reflex  action, 
"  Emotional  character, 

"  "  "Volitional, 

Relation  of  the  Emotions  to  the  Will, 
Free  action  of  the  Will,  .  » 

Influence  of  the  body  for  good  or  evil, 
Language  of  the  muscles. 
Agencies  affecting  the  health, 
Natural  heritage, 
Impure  Air,  influence  of, 
Improper  Diet, 
Poisons, 

Physical  Exercise,  want  of, 
Sleep, 

Mental  Exercise, 
Employment, 
Amount  of  exercise, 
Intense  Activity, 
Recreation, 

Each  faculty  to  be  educated, 
The  Esthetic  faculty, 
The  Moral          " 
Mammals,  Nervous  System, 
Birds, 
Reptiles, 

Fishes,  " 

Mollusks,  " 

Radiata, 
Lower  forms  of  Life,  " 

c« 


§44. 
Anatomy  of. 


§45. 
Histology  of. 


§46. 
Physiology  of. 


§47- 
Hygiene  of. 


Comparative 
Neurology  of. 


CHAP.  XL 
Nervous 
System. 


56         QUESTIONS,    DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 
FIG.  217.  FIG.  218. 


FIG.  217.  A  BACK  VIEW  OP  THE  BRAIN  AND  SPINAL  CORD.— 1,  The  cerebrum.  2,  The 
cerebellum.  3,  The  spinal  cord.  4,  Nerves  of  the  face.  5,  The  brachial  plexus  of  nerves, 
6,  7,  8,  9,  Nerves  of  the  arm.  10,  Nerves  that  pass  under  the  ribs.  11,  The  lumbar  plexua 
of  nerves.  12,  The  sacral  plexus  of  nerves.  13,  14,  15,  16,  Nerves  of  the  lower  limbs. 

FlO.   218    REPRESENTS    THE    SYMPATHETIC    GANGLIA.   AND    THEIR    CONNECTION   WITH    OTHER 

NERVES,  from  the  grand  engraving  of  Manec,  reduced  in  size.  A,  A,  A.  The  semilunar 
ganglion  and  solar  plexus,  situated  below  the  diaphragm  and  behind  the  stomach.  This 
ganglion  is  situated  in  the  region  (pit  of  the  stomach)  where  a  blow  gives  severe  suffer- 
ing. D,  D,  D,  The  thoracic  (chest)  ganglia,  ten  or  eleven  in  number.  E,  E,  The  external 
and  internal  branches  of  the  thoracic  ganglia.  G,  H,  The  right  and  left  coronary  plexus, 
situated  upon  the  heart.  I,  N,  Q,  The  inferior,  middle  and  superior  cervical  (neck)  ganglia. 
1,  The  renal  plexus  of  nerves  that  surrounds  the  kidneys.  2,  The  lumbar  (loin)  ganglion. 
3,  Their  internal  branches.  4,  Their  external  branches.  5,  The  aortic  plexus  of  nerves 
that  lies  upon  the  aorta.  The  other  letters  and  figures  represent  nerves  that  counect 
important  organs  and  nerves  with  the  sympathetic  ganglia. 


QUESTIONS,    DIAGRAMS    AND    ILLUSTRATIONS.         57 
FIG.  219. 


FIG.  219.  DIAGRAM  OF  HUMAN  BRAIN,  IN  VERTICAL  SECTION,  showing  the  situation  of 
the  different  ganglia  and  the  course  of  the  fibres.  1,  Olfactory  ganglion.  2,  Hemisphere. 
f;  Corpus  striatura.  4,  Optic  thalamus.  5,  Tubercula  qnadrigemina.  6,  Cerebellum. 
7,  Ganglion  of  tuber  annulare.  8,  Ganglion  of  medulla  oblongata. 


FIG.  221. 


FIG.  220. 


FIG.  222. 


FIG.  220.  BRAIN  OF  A  BIRD. — 1,  Cerebrum.  2,  Optic  ganglion.  3,  Cerebellum,  t,  Medulla 
oblongata. 

FIG.  221.  BRAIN  OF  AN  ALLIGATOR. — 1,  Olfactory  ganglia.  2,  Cerebrum.  3,  Optic 
ganglia.  4,  Cerebellum.  5,  Medulla  oblongata  and  spinal  cord. 

FIG.  222.  BRAIN  OF  A  FISH.— 1,  Olfactory  ganglia.  2,  Cerebrum.  3,  Optic  ganglia. 
4,  Cerebellum.  5,  Medulla  oblongata  and  spinal  cord. 


58         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


ANALYTIC  EXAMINATION. 

CHAPTER  XII.— THE  ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE. 
§  49.   The  Anatomy  of  the  Organs  of  Special  Sense. 

532.  What  is  the  organ  of  the  sense  of  Taste?  Give  a  description 
of  the  Tongue.  From  what  nerves  are  filaments  received? 

^33.  Describe  the  organ  of  the  sense  of  Smell.  Mention  the 
nerves. 

634.  What  is  the  Eye  ?  Name  its  parts.  Of  what  service  is  the 
Sclerotica?  Describe  the  Choroidea.  What  is  its  com- 
position ?  Of  what  do  the  ciliary  processes  consist  ?  What 
is  said  of  the  Iris  ?  What  is  the  Retina  ? 

535.  Describe  the  Aqueous  Humor.    Crystalline  lens.     Observa- 

tion. 

536.  What  is  the  Vitreous  Humor  ?    Distinguish  between  it  and 

Aqueous  Humor. 

537.  Speak  of  the  muscles  of  the  Eye.     Observation. 

538.  What  are  the  Orbits?    Eyebrows?    Eyelids?    Give  the  Ob- 

servation. Of  what  does  the  Lachrymal  Apparatus  con- 
sist? Where  is  the  Lachrymal  Gland  situated  ?  Describe 
the  Lachrymal  Canals.  Nasal  Duct. 

539.  What  is  said  of  the  sense  of  Hearing? 

540.  Why  the  Labyrinth  so  called  ?    Give  its  divisions. 

541.  Describe  the  Vestibule. 

542.  Describe  the  Semicircular  Canals. 

543.  Speak  of  the  Cochlea.     Of  the  Fenestra  Ovalis. 

544.  What  is  the-  Tympanum  ?    Why  called  the  Drum  ?    Where 

is  the  Eustachian  Tube  ?  What  are  found  in  the  tympanic 
cavity  ? 

545.  Describe  the  External  Ear. 

546.  What  is  concerned  in  the  Sense  of  Touch  ?    Give  its  layers. 

547.  What  is  said  of  the  Skin  and  its  connection  with  the  mucous 

membrane? 

548.  Give  the  relation  of  the  Epidermis  to  the  Dermis.    What 

change  does  the  Epidermis  experience?  What  is  the  seat 
of  color? 

549.  What  is-the  Cuticle? 

550.  What  is  said  of  the  Dermis?    What  are  found  with  the 

fibrous  and  elastic  tissues  ? 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         59 

551.  Describe  the  Papillae. 

552.  Speak  of  the  blood-vessels,  nerves  and  lymphatics  of  the 

Cutis  Vera. 

553.  Where  are  the  Hair-Follicles  ?    Describe  the  different  parts 

of  a  hair.  What  results  from  the  contraction  of  the  un- 
striated  muscular  fibres  ? 

554.  Describe  the  Oil-Glands. 

555.  Where  are  the  Sweat-Glands?   What  are  " pores"  ?    What  is 

"  insensible  perspiration  "  ? 

556.  Speak  of  the  Nails.     Of  what  is  the  horny  part  composed  ? 

How  do  they  grow  ? 

§  50.  Physiology  of  the  Organs  of  Special  Sense. 

557.  State  the  primary  use  of  the  sense  of  Taste.    What  is  said 

of  this  sense  in  man  ?    What  is  the  effect  of  cultivation  ? 

558.  Is  the  sense  of  Smell  one  of  great  importance?    Why  not? 

559.  When  light  passes  through  different  media,  to  what  changes 

are  its  rays  subject?  What  effect  has  convex  or  concave 
surfaces  ?  Illustrate  and  apply  the  above  principles. 

560.  Give  the  shape  of  those  parts  of  the  eye  which  act  as  media. 

State  the  use  of  so  many  lenses. 

561.  In  what  case  will  a  more  convex  and  in  what  a  less  convex 

lens  be  required?  How  is  the  eye  able  to  change  the 
convexity  of  its  lenses  and  vary  its  focal  distances? 

562.  What  is  the  cause  of  short-sightedness  and  long-sightedness? 

What  suggestion  in  the  selection  of  glasses  ? 

563.  What  is  the  function  of  the  Sclerotic  coat?    What  that  of 

the  pigment  of  the  Choroid  coat?  How  may  the  functions 
of  some  parts  of  the  eye  be  beautifully  shown  ? 

564.  Speak  of  the  accessory  parts  of  the  eye.    What  enables  the 

eye  to  move  without  friction  ?  How  are  the  eyelids  drawn 
together?  Give  the  functions  of  the  Eyelashes  and  Eye- 
brows. 

565.  What  is  Hearing? 

566.  What  is  the  function  of  the  External  Ear? 

567.  What  that  of  the  Auditory  Canal?    State  the  design  of  the 

Eustachian  Tube.  Give  the  uses  of  the  Vestibule,  Cochlea 
and  Semicircular  Canals. 

568.  What  are  distinguished  by  this  sense  ?    How  does  this  appa- 

ratus compare  with  that  of  vision  ? 

569.  Speak  of  the  special  organ  of  the  sense  of  Touch. 


60        QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND    ILLUSTRATIONS. 

570.  State  the  threefold  functions  of  the  skin. 

571.  Give  the  uses  of  the  Epidermis. 

572.  What  is  said  of  the  Cuticle  ? 

573.  Of  what  service  are  the  cutaneous  Papillae? 

574.  Where  does  vitality  reside  ?     Why  there  ? 

575.  What  power  does  the  surface  of  the  skin  possess? 

576.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  oil  derived  from  the  oil-glands  ? 

577.  State  the  uses  of  Perspiration.     By  what  is  the  quantity  in- 

fluenced ? 

578.  What  is  the  influence  of  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  ? 
679.  Give  the  functions  of  the  Hair  and  Nails. 

$  51.  Hygiene  of  the  Organs  of  Special  Sense. 

580.  What  perverts  the  sense  of  Taste?    By  what  is  this  sense 

varied  ? 

581.  By  what  does  the  sense  of  Smell  become  impaired? 

582.  What  care  is  necessary  in  using  the  eye  ? 

583.  What  is  the  effect  of  sudden  transitions  of  light? 

584.  What  should  be  avoided  ? 

585.  How  should  the  eye  of  the  child  be  trained  ? 

586.  What  is  beneficial  ?    Observation. 

587.  Can  the  sense  of  Hearing  be  improved  ? 

588.  How  may  this  sense  be  impaired?    Observation. 

589.  What  parts  are  absolutely  essential,  and  what  not? 

590.  To  what  must  attention  be  given  ? 

591.  What  is  said  of  the  use  of  clothing? 

592.  Of  what  material  should  it  be  ?    Compare  furs,  woolen  cloth 

silk,  cotton  and  linen. 

593.  Why  should  the  clothing  be  porous  and  loosely  fitted  ? 

594.  To  what  must  it  be  suited  ?    Observation. 

595.  Who  require  the  more  clothing  ? 

596.  What  is  said  of  clothing  when  a  vital  organ  is  diseased? 

597.  What  persons  need  less  clothing? 

598.  What  is  said  of  cleanliness  of  the  clothing? 

599.  What  of  damp  clothing  ? 

600.  What  is  indispensable  to  health? 

601.  What  effect  has  bathing  on  the  internal  organs? 

602.  State  the  simplest  mode  of  bathing. 

603.  Speak  of  the  shallow  bath. 

604.  Upon  what  must  depend  the  frequency  of  bathing? 
505.  What  should  the  time  be  ? 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         61 

606.  In  what  diseases  is  bathing  of  great  importance? 

607.  State  the  rules  to  be  observed. 

608.  State  the  influence  of  pure  air. 

609.  What  influence  does  light  exercise  ? 

610.  What  is  a  blister?    What  care  should  be  taken?    How  is 

vesication  prevented  ? 

611.  What  are  Corns?    From  what  comes  the  pain? 

612.  What  is  said  of  Frost-bite?    How  is  Chilblain  caused  ? 


FIG.  223. 


FIG.  223  (Dalian).    DIAGRAM  OF  THE  TONGUE,  with  its  sensitive  nerves  and  papilbo 
,  Lingual  branch  of  fifth  pair.    2,  Glosso-pharyngeal  nerve. 


FlG.  224. 


FIG.  224.    A  SIDE  VIEW  OF  THE  PASSAGE  OF  THE  NOSTRILS,  AND  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF 
me  OLFACTORY  NERVE. — 4,  The  olfactory  nerve.    5,  The  fine  divisions  of  this  nerve  on 
the  membrane  of  the  nose.    6,  A  branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves. 
6 


62         QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Anatomy  of. 


§50. 
Physiology  of. 


SYNTHETIC  REVIEW. 

Organs  of  Taste,  Smell  and  Sight, 

Sclerotica,  Choroidea, 

Ciliary  Processes, 

Iris,  Retina, 

Aqueous,  Crystalline  and  Vitreous  Humors, 

Muscles  of  the  Eye, 

Orbits,  Eyebrows,  Eyelids, 

Lachrymal  Glands  and  Canals, 

Nasal  Duct, 

Organs  of  Hearing, 

Labyrinth,  Vestibule, 

Semicircular  Canals, 

Cochlea,  Tympanum, 

External  Ear, 

Organs  of  Touch, 

Two  layers  of  skin — Epidermis  and  Dennis, 

Hairs, 

Sebaceous  and  Respiratory  Glands, 

Nails. 

Sense  of  Taste,  Primary  use, 

Smell, 
Laws  of  Light, 

"  Adaptation  of  the  eye, 

Short-sightedness,  Cause, 
Long-sightedness,     " 
Defect  remedied, 
Coats,  Function, 
Accessory  parts  of  the  eye, 
Hearing, 

External  Ear,  Function, 
Auditory  Canal,     " 
Eustachian  Tube,  " 

Cochlea  and  Semicircular  Canals,  Function, 
Hearing,  " 

Organ  of  Touch, 
Skin,  Function, 

Epidermis  and  Cuticle,  Function. 
Cutaneous  Papillae, 
Corium,  Vessels, 
Oil-Glands,  Function,     • 
Perspiration.     Use, 

Quantity, 

"  External  condition, 

Hair  and  Nails. 
Sense  of  Taste.    Perversion, 

Smell, 

Eye,  how  to  be  used, 
Amaurosis, 

Oblique  positions,  long-continued, 
Viewing  objects  at  different  distances, 
Bathing  the  eye, 
Dust,  removal, 
Defective  Hearing,  Cause, 
Hearing,  parts  essential, 
Clothing,  Material, 

Class  of  persons  needing  more  clothing, 
Clothing,  Cleanliness, 
Bathing.    Modes, 

Time, 

"  General  Rales. 

Water  a  curative  agent, 
Skin.    Air  beneficial, 
Effect  of  light, 
Burns  and  Scalds,  Treatment, 
Corns,  Frost-lJitc. 

State  the  Anatomy,  the  Physiology  and  the  Hygiene  of  the 
Organs  of  Special  Sense,  the  Care  of  the  Sick,  of  Poisoned  Persona 
and  of  persons  injured  in  any  way. 


§51. 
Hygiene  of. 


CHAP.  XII. 
The  Organs  of 
Special  Sense. 


QUESTIONS,  DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.         63 

FIG.  225. 


FIG.  225.  A  SECTION  OF  THE  GLOBE  OP  THB  EVE. — 1,  The  sclerotic  coat.  2,  The  cornea. 
(This  connects  with  the  sclerotic  coat  by  a  beveled  edge.)  3,  The  choroidcoat.  6,  6,  The 
iris.  7,  The  pupil.  8,  The  retina.  10, 11, 11,  Chambers  of  the  eye  that  contain  the 
aqueous  humor.  12,  The  crystalline  lens.  13,  The  vitreous  humor.  15,  The  optic  nerve. 
16,  The  central  artery  of  the  eye. 


FIG.  226. 


FIG.  226.  A  VIEW  OP  ALL  THE  PARTS  OP  THE  EAK.— 1,  The  canal  that  leads  to  the  inter- 
nal ear.  2,  The  membrana  tympani.  3,  4,  5,  The  bones  of  the  ear.  7,  The  central  part 
of  the  labyrinth  (vestibule).  8,  9, 10,  The  semicircular  canals.  11, 12,  The  channels  of 
the  cochlea.  13,  The  auditory  nerve.  14,  The  opening  from  the  middle  ear,  or  tympa- 
num, to  the  throat  (Eustachian  tube). 


64          QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


APPENDIX. 


GHAPTEE  XIII.—  CARE  OF  THE  SICK. 

§  1.  The  Nurse. 

[Compare  591-599.] 
Cleanliness.  —  What  regard  should  be  had  for  cleanliness  ? 

[Compare  601-608.] 
Bathing.  —  Mention  what  is  said  respecting  bathing. 

[Compare  264-286.] 
Food  and  Drink.—  What  is  said  of  the  food  and  drink  of  the  sick  ?    Name 

the  means  of  nourishment,  and  tell  how  they  are  prepared. 
Temperature.  —  Speak  of  the  temperature  of  the  sick-room. 
Light.  —  What  suggestions  are  made  as  to  light? 
Quiet.  —  How  may  quiet  be  had  ?     Mention  other  duties  of  the  nurse. 


I  2.  The  Watcher. 
Give  the  duties  of  the  Watcher. 

§  3.  Poisons  and  their  Antidotes. 

When  poisons  have  been  taken,  what  is  to  be  done  ?     Name  the  most  oono 
mon  poisons,  and  their  antidotes. 

[Compare  363.] 
How  can  haamorrhage  be  arrested  ? 

[Compare  364.] 
Give  the  manner  of  dressing  wounds. 

[Compare  430.] 
How  may  asphyxiated  persons  be  recovered  ? 

[Compare  610-612.] 
Speak  of  Burns,  Scalds  and  Frost-Bite,  and  their  treatment. 


QUESTIONS,   DIAGRAMS  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS.          65 


DIVISION  IV.— SENSORIAL  APPARATUS. 


SYNTHETIC  KEVIEW. 


SECT.  44.  Anatomy  of. 
"     45.  Histology  of. 
"     46.  Physiology  of. 
"     47.  Hygiene  of. 
"     48.  Comparative  Neurology  of. 


49.  Anatomy  of. 

50.  Physiology  of. 

51.  Hygiene  of. 

Care  of  the  Sick. 
Poisons  and  their  Antidotes. 
Treatment  of  Wounds. 
Arrest  of  Haemorrhage. 
Eecovery  of  Persons  apparently 

Drowned. 
Treatment  of  Burns. 


CHAP.  XL 
The  Nervous 


CHAP.  XII. 
The  Organs  of 
Special  Sense. 


CHAP.  XIII. 
Appendix. 


Division  IV 
The  Nervous 
Apparatus. 


State  the  Anatomy,  the  Histology,  the  Physiology  and  the 
Hygiene,  Human  and  Comparative,  of  the  Nervous  Apparatus, 
and  the  Care  of  the  Sick,  Poisons  and  their  Antidotes,  Treatment 
of  Wounds,  Haemorrhage,  Burns,  and  persons  apparently  drowned. 


66        QUESTIONS,  DIAGRAMS   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


SUMMARY.— SYNTHETIC  REVIEW. 


SECT.  1.  The  Three    Kingdoms  of  Nature 

Compared. 
"     2.  Definitions. 

"     3.  Cells. 

"     4.  Tissues. 

"     5.  Membranes. 

"     6.  Solids  and  Fluids. 

"  7.  Anatomy  of. 

"  8.  Histology  of. 

"  9.  Chemistry  of. 

"  10.  Physiology  of. 

"  11.  Hygiene  of. 

"  12.  Comparative  Osteology. 

"  13.  Anatomy  of. 

"  14.  Histology  of. 

"  15.  Chemistry  ot 

"  16.  Physiology  of. 

"  17.  Hygiene  of. 

"  18.  Comparative  Myology. 

"  19.  Anatomy  of. 
"  20.  Histology  of. 
"   21.  Chemistry  of. 
"  22.  Physiology  of. 
«  23.  Hygiene  of. 
•  "  24.  Comparative  Splanchnology. 

"  25.  Anatomy  of. 
"  26.  Histology  of. 
"  27.  Chemistry  of. 
"  28.  Physiology  of. 
"  29.  Hygiene  of. 

"  30.  The  Blood. 

"  31.  Anatomy  of. 

"  32.  Histology  of. 

"   33.  Chemistry  of. 

"   34.  Physiology  of. 

"  35.  Hygiene  of. 

"  36.  Comparative  Angiology. 

"  37.  Assimilation,  General  and  Specific.  | 

"  38.  Anatomy  of. 

"  39.  Histology  of. 

"  40.  Chemistry  of. 

"  41.  Physiology  of. 

"  42.  Hygiene  of. 

"  43.  Comparative  Pneumonology. 

"  44.  Anatomy  of. 

"  45.  Histology  of. 

"  46.  Physiology  of. 

"  47.  Hygiene  of. 

"  48.  Comparative  Neurology. 

"  49.  Anatomy  of. 
"  50.  Physiology  of. 
''   51.  Hygiene  of. 

Care  of  the  Sick. 

Poisons  and  Antidotes. 

Treatment  of  Wounds,  Haemor- 
rhage, of  apparently  Drowned 
Persons  and  of  Burns. 


CHAP.  I. 

General  Remarks. 

1 

Division  I, 

CHAP.  II. 

General  Histology. 

Outline 
Principles. 

i          CHAP.  III. 

i"  General  Chemistry.  , 

CHAP.  IV. 

The  Bones. 

Division  II, 

Motory 

Apparatus. 

CHAP.  V. 

The  Muscles. 

CHAP.  VI. 

The  Digestive 

Organs. 

IcHAP.Vn. 
2%e  Absorbents. 

P 

B 

B 

P 

Division  III, 

H- 

CHAP.  VIII. 
Z%c  Circulation. 

Nutritive 
Apparatus. 

co 

i          CHAP.  IX. 

J        Assimilation. 

CHAP.  X. 

Ifte  Organs  of 

Respiration. 

}.  CHAP.  XL 

The  Nervous 
System. 

Division  IV. 

Nervous 

}CHAP.  XII. 
The  Organs  of 
Special  Sense. 

Apparatus. 

CHAP.  XIII 

Appendix. 

State  succinctly  the  Anatomy,  the  Histology,  the  Chemistry,  the 
Physiology  and  the  Hygiene  of  Mammals. 


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